JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN SCIENCE TEACHING

VOL. 30, NO. 7, PP. 787-797 (1993)

Do Middle School Life Science Textbooks Provide a Balance of Scientific Literacy Themes?
Eugene L. Chiappetta
Department of Curriculum and Instruction, University of Houston, Houston, Texas 77204-5872

Godrej H. Sethna
Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030

David A. Fillman
Galena Park Independent School District, Galena Park. Texas 77547

Abstract
Four themes of scientific literacy have been synthesized to analyze science textbooks for this purpose: (a) science as a body of knowledge, (b) science as a way of investigating, (c) science as a way of thinking, and (d) the interaction among science, technology, and society (STS). The intercoder agreement between two researchers who coded the units of analysis for the four themes was high. The life science textbooks examined in this study seem to stress two aspects of scientific literacy-science as a body of knowledge and science as a way of investigating. These textbooks devote practically no text to science as a way of thinking. Very little text is devoted to the interaction of science, technology, and society. There was at least one chapter in each textbook that addressed the nature of science and its relationship to life science. Most of the analyzed textbooks present the stereotypical steps of the scientific method and do not provide a balance of scientific literacy themes.

Science textbooks play an important role for middle school science teachers in the education of our youth. These teaching aids often form the topic outline of the cumculum and contain a significant amount of the information addressed in the classroom. Many science teachers, new teachers in particular, use the assigned textbook as their content outline and story line for their courses. Some researchers believe that, in a typical classroom, the textbook serves as the ultimate source of knowledge, provides the majority of instructional support beyond the teacher, and in many cases actually becomes the curriculum (Stake & Easley, 1978). There seems to be little question regarding the importance of textbooks in science teaching (Exline, 1984; Harms & Yager, 1981). However, the problems associated with science textbooks are numerous. By the time publishers attempt to satisfy the guidelines of the science
0 1993 by the National Association for Research in Science Teaching Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
CCC 0022-4308/93/070787-11

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CHIAPPETTA, SETHNA, AND FILLMAN

curriculum committees of many states, textbooks end up covering far too much subject matter and may do so in a superficial manner, These thick, visually attractive teaching aids rarely change in terms of their quality in presenting the nature of science. In addition, science textbooks often fail to present important topics (such as evolution and sex) in a thorough manner for fear of offending special interest groups. What constitutes a good science textbook and how can we identify one? The lists of items that committees use in textbook selection are long and include such items as content accuracy, clear definition of terms, end-of-chapter questions, pictures and diagrams, in-text laboratory activities, etc. Although these criteria are important, they do not address the most fundamental ideas of what should be evident in a middle school science textbook. We believe the most fundamental question regarding the content of a science textbook is: Does the textbook accurately present the nature of science within a relevant context for the student, and is this conspicuous throughout the text, not just in the first chapter or boxed off from the main narrative as an afterthought? One approach to this problem is to determine if the textbook under consideration reflects the themes of scientific literacy that science educators believe are important. We believe that science textbooks must contain a reasonable balance of many themes of scientific literacy. The themes that have been identified for this purpose are (a) science as a body of knowledge, (b) science as a way of investigating, (c) science as a way of thinking, and (d) the interaction among science, technology, and society. These themes were synthesized from the NSTAs 1982 position on scientific literacy and the work of Pella, OHearn, and Gale (1966), Showalter (1974), Harms and Yager (1981), Roberts (1983), Orpwood and Soque (1984), Garcia (1985), and Collette and Chiapetta (1986). Purpose The purpose of this investigation was to analyze five widely used life science textbooks for their presentation of four themes of scientific literacy. The major questions are as follows:
1. What do these teaching aids communicate to students, as well as their teachers, regarding the four themes of scientific literacy under study? 1. How well do these textbooks present the nature of science at the beginning of the text? 3. How many key vocabulary terms do these textbooks introduce in the chapters?

Review of Literature The focus for the present review of literature was to gain greater insight into balance in the curriculum for middle school life science. Previous inquiries along this line of research addressed a synthesis of the themes of scientific literacy and began with an analysis of earth science textbooks (Garcia, 1985), an examination of curriculum balance in physical science textbooks (Chiappetta, Sethna, & Fillman, (1987), an investigation of biology textbooks and the effects of themes on attitude and recall (Fillman, 1989), a quantitative analysis of themes and expository learning aids in chemistry textbooks (Chiappetta, Sethna, & Fillman, 1991), and a method to quantify major themes of scientific literacy in science textbooks (Chiappetta, Fillman, & Sethna, 1991a, 1991b). Many of the science textbooks used in school districts across the nation in the secondary schools during the later part of the 1980s appear to possess little balance in their approach to

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various themes of scientific literacy. Examination of the physical science textbooks adopted by Texas revealed that almost half of the material in these books reflected science as a body of knowledge (Chiappetta, Sethna, & Fillman, 1987). Science as a way of thinking and the interaction of science, technology, and society were virtually ignored. An evaluation of 11 biology textbooks adopted by Texas exhibited an even greater reliance on science as a body of knowledge. Each of the biology textbooks devoted at least two thirds of its presentation to the knowledge orientation (Fillman, 1989). Five chemistry textbooks exhibited a similar pattern of thematic imbalance (Chiappetta, Sethna, & Fillman, 1991). Pizzini, Shepardson, and Abell (1991) analyzed the level of inquiry among the science activities in two middle school science textbook series that are used by a large percentage of school districts across the nation: the Merrill Focus series and the Scott Foresman series. They reported that 54% of the inquiry activities for students in the Merrill life science textbook are confirmatory in nature, requiring the learner to verify subject matter with procedures that are given. They also reported that 46% of the activities were structured, whereby the learner is given the problem and the procedure to follow. These researchers noted that none of the chapters in the textbooks or supplemental materials that they examined contained guided or open inquiry investigations for students to carry out. Pizzini et al. were disappointed to discover that the level of student inquiry, thinking, and creativity was very limited in both the textbook and the supplement, limiting students practice with (a) problem formation, (b) investigation design, (c) discussion of assumptions, (d) prediction of outcomes, and (e) explanation of problems and results. Any attempt to assess the worth of science textbooks must include an assessment of the nature of science. The work of Martin, Kass, and Brouwer (1990) is a presentation of how one might arrive at an explanation of authentic science for science educational purposes. They present 10 facets of science that should be considered by curriculum writers, science educators, and science teachers in their work: methodological fidelity, epistemological considerations, presuppositionalism, falsification, hedonism, personal science, historical science, societal science, technological science, and the aims of science. From the discussion of these aspects of authentic science, the following ideas were distilled to assist in the examination of the middle school science textbooks that are meant for the primarily concrete operational, gregarious adolescent:
1 . There is no one scientific method. 2. Beware of five erroneous beliefs about science-naive realism, blissful empiricism, credulous experimentalism, excessive rationalism, blind idealism. 3. Science is learned through close personal association with a master. 4. The road to truth regarding scientific theory is rather idiosyncratic. 5 . Scientists often cling to their theories in the face of conflicting evidence. 6 . The history of science reveals just how tentative the themes are that guide its development. 7 . We must consider the cultural, economic, religious, and ideological values of society when we study science. 8. The aims of science for today must center on the extent to which they serve humanity.

Procedure The five life science textbooks that were selected for content analysis were those on the State of Texas recommended list to be used during the later part of the 1980s, and are still in use. These texts are also believed to be widely used in other states. The texts are

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Barr, B.B. (1986). Life science. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley. Bierer, L., & Lien, V.F. (1985). Heath life science. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath. Heimler, C.H. (1984). Focus on life science. Columbus, OH: Merrill. 4. Jantzen, P.G., & Michel, J.L. (1986). Life science. New York: Macmillan. 5. Ramsey, W.L., Gabriel, L.A., McGuirk, J.F., Phillips, C.R., & Watenpaugh, F.M. (1986). Life science. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

I.

2. 3.

The four themes of scientific literacy used to analyze science textbooks form the basis for a manual, which was developed to explain how to quantitatively determine the percentage of text devoted to each of these fundamental ideas. This procedure is presented in a research report (Chiappetta, Fillman, & Sethna, 1991a) and described in detail in a manual (Chiappetta, Fillman, & Sethna, 1991b). The manual provides (a) a presentation of scientific literacy and its role in the analysis of a science textbook, (b) a description of the four themes of scientific literacy, (c) an explanation of how to identify units of analysis on a textbook page, and (d) practice sets taken from a variety of science textbooks to assist researchers to develop the skill to categorize a unit of analysis as belonging to a given theme. A summary of the categories and directions for analyzing science textbooks is as follows:
1. The knowledge o science. Check this category if the intent of the text is to present, f discuss, or ask the student to recall information, facts, concepts, principles, laws, theories, etc. It reflects the transmission of scientific knowledge where the student receives information. This category typifies most textbooks and presents information to be learned by the reader. Textbook material in this category (a) presents facts, concepts, principles, and laws; (b) presents hypotheses, theories, and models; and (c) asks the student to recall knowledge or information. 2. The investigative nature ojscience. Check this category if the intent of the text is to stimulate thinking and doing by asking the student to find out. It reflects the active aspect of inquiry and learning, which involves the student in the methods and processes of science such as observing, measuring, classifying, inferring, recording data, making calculations, experimenting, etc. This type of instruction can include paper-and-pencil as well as hands-on activities. Textbook material in this category (a) requires the student to answer a question through the use of materials; (b) requires the student to answer a question through the use of charts, tables, etc.; (c) requires the student to make a calculation; (d) requires the student to reason out an answer; and (e) engages the student in a thought experiment or activity. However, if a question simply asks for recall of information or is immediately answered in the text, check Category 1. f 3 . Science as a way o thinking. Check this category if the intent of the text is to illustrate how science in general or a certain scientist in particular went about finding out. This aspect of the nature of science represents thinking, reasoning, and reflection where the student is told how the specific enterprise operates. Textbook material in this category (a) describes how a scientist experimented, (b) shows the historical development of an idea, (c) emphasizes the empirical nature and objectivity of science, (d) illustrates the use of assumptions, (e), shows how science proceeds by inductive and deductive reasoning, (f) gives cause-and-effect relationships, ( 9 ) discusses evidence and proof, and (h) brings out how science is a discipline disposed to self-examination. 4. Interaction of science, technology, and society. Check this category if the intent of the text is to illustrate the effects or impacts of science on society. This aspect of scientific literacy pertains to the application of science and how technology helps or hinders humankind. It involves social issues and careers. Nevertheless, the student receives

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this information and generally does not have to find out. Textbook material in this category (a) describes the usefulness of science and technology to society, (b) stresses the negative effects of science and technology on society, (c) discusses social issues related to science or technology, and (d) brings out careers and jobs in scientific and technological fields.

In addition to the descriptions of the four themes, the manual contains the following:
1.
2.
A presentation of scientific literacy and its role in the analysis of a science textbook. A list of text elements (units of analysis) that appear on the pages of science textbooks that should be used for analyzing content themes such as complete paragraphs, questions, figures, tables with captions, marginal comments, and complete steps in a laboratory or hands-on activity. A list of pages that should not be analyzed in a science textbook, such as a page with fewer than two analyzable units, a page that contains only review questions and vocabulary words, and goal and objective statements. Directions on how to identify and number the units of analysis on each page. A data sheet on which the units of analysis identified on each textbook page can be classified into the four aspects of scientific literacy. Seven practice sets to aid in developing the skill of categorizing units of analysis on a given page of a textbook. Each set consists of three or four paragraphs from a different science textbook published over the past 20 years, intended for science courses taught in Grades 7-12. The user is instructed to analyze each paragraph and categorize it into one of the four aspects or themes of scientific literacy and its appropriate subcategory. Then the user checks their ratings with those of the researchers and explanations of these ratings on the next page. A review that requests the user to construct many short paragraphs, each of which illustrates a different aspect of scientific literacy.

3.

4.

5.
6.

7.

Along with examining random samples of the whole textbook, the entire first section of each textbook was carefully examined regarding its treatment of the four themes and how it treated the nature of science. Each of the textbooks devote at least one chapter to an explanation of what science is and the methods of science. The nature of science presentation appeared in Chapter 1 of the Addison-Wesley, Heath, and Holt textbooks; in Chapter 3 of the Macmillan textbook; and in Chapter 2 of the Menill textbook. These chapters were examined to determine their value in presenting a coherent and accurate idea of science to the reader. The number of science terms emphasized in each chapter was determined in order to ascertain the amount of vocabulary and the number of concepts the students are expected to learn. The authors highlight the key terms using bold type within paragraphs. They also place some of them in the margins and list all of them at the end of the chapter. Terms such as phylum, producers, bud, placenta, and population are examples of major vocabulary words found in life science textbooks. Results Table 1 presents the intercoder agreements for the analysis of the chapter on the nature of science in the five middle school life science textbooks regarding four themes of scientific literacy. The percentage of agreement ranged from 71% to 90%. The kappa coefficients, which take into consideration guessing between two raters (Cohen, 1960), ranged from 0.61 to 0.86. Table 2 presents the intercoder agreements for the analysis of the five textbooks regarding four

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Table 1 Intercorder Agreements for the Analysis o the f Chapter on the Nature o Science with Regard to f Categorizing Four Themes of Scientific Literacy Textbook Addison-Wesley Heath Holt Macmillan Merrill
Note.

Percent agreement

Kappa

71 90
88 86 89

0.61 0.86 0.84 0.81 0.85

This coding was produced from two raters

themes of scientific literacy between two raters. The intercoder agreements ranged from 82% to 92%. The kappas for the ratings ranged from 0.77 to 0.89. These statistics suggest a high degree of agreement among the raters in categorizing the content messages in the five textbooks. The kappa statistic has a range between - 1.00 and + 1.OO with 0 representing chance agreement among raters. Rubinstein and Brown (1984) state that kappas between 0.40 and 0.75 indicate fair to good agreement. Table 3 presents the percentage of the four themes found in the chapter devoted to the nature of science in each textbook. The table shows that the material devoted to science as a body of knowledge ranges from a mean of 28% to 39%. The material devoted to science as a way of investigating, which engages the reader in finding out, ranges from a mean of 22% to 46%. The material devoted to science as a way of thinking, which reflects one of the most important aspects of the nature of science, ranges from a mean of 21% to 40%. The material devoted to STS, which reflects relevancy, ranges from a mean of 0% to 9%. Table 4 presents the percentage of four themes found among the five textbooks within a 5% random sample of pages selected throughout each book. Inspection of the table shows that science as a body of knowledge is the predominant theme and ranges from a mean of 54% to 76%. The material devoted to science as a way of investigating ranges from a mean of 22% to 41%. The material devoted to science as a way of thinking ranges from a mean of 0% to 2%. The material devoted to STS ranges from a mean of 3% to 11%. Table 5 shows that the total number of chapters in the life science textbooks that were examined range from 22 to 25 in four of the five books examined; the Addison-Wesley book has
Table 2 Intercorder Agreement f o r the Analysis of Text Material with Regard to Four Themes of Scientijic Literacy Textbook Addison-Wesley Heath Holt Macrnillan Merrill Percent agreement Kappa

92 89 82 82 90

0.89
0.86 0.77 0.77 0.87

Note. This coding was produced from two raters.

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Table 3 Percentage o Four Themes o Scientific Literacy f f f in the Nature o Science Chapter
~ ~~

Themes of scientific literacy Textbook Addison-Wesley Coder

A

I
18 55 37 39 38 39 36 38 37

I1 29 15 22 36 34 35 30 27 29 34 29 32 41 44 46
~~

I11
49 31

IV 5 0 3 5 7 6
11 7 9

B Mean
Heath
A

40
20 21 21 24 28 26 38 34 36 21 21 21
~~

B Mean
Holt
A B

Mean Macmillan
A

B Mean Merrill A B Mean

24 32 28
32 34 33

4
4

0 0 0

Note. The mean percentage scores have been rounded off to the nearest whole number. The themes of scientific literacy are I = science as a body of knowledge; 11 = science as a way of investigation, I11 = science as a way of thinking; and IV = the interaction of science, technology, and society (STS).

only 14 chapters but the largest number of pages. The total number of pages ranges from a low of 493 in the Macmillaq book to a high of 570 in the Addison-Wesley book. The mean number of vocabulary words per chapter found in the books ranges from 13.36 to 39.00. The mean number of vocabulary words per page ranges from 0.55 to 0.96. Discussion The analysis of the five textbooks, using the criteria developed for this line of research, reveals some consistent patterns that are important in order to understand the contribution of science textbooks to the development of scientific literacy. For example, the Addison-Wesley authors begin their textbook with a good presentation of the nature of science. This text has the highest percentage of science as a way of thinking among the five textbooks analyzed (Table 3). The first chapter begins with the importance of questioning in scientific investigation. In addition, the authors discuss the work of many scientists, illustrating various methods used to discover new knowledge. Although the scientific method is mentioned, the authors do not provide a list of five or six stereotypical steps to follow. However, throughout the rest of the text, the balance of themes shifts away from science as a way of thinking. The Addison-Wesley book devotes some material to the interactions among science, technology, and society throughout the textbook (Table 4). The Heath life science textbook authors provide a reasonable amount of balance among the

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Table 4

Percentage o Four Themes of Scientijic Literacy f found throughout the Textbooks

Themes of scientific literacv Textbook Addison-Wesley Coder A

I 58
59

I1
29 30 30 30 26 28
48 33 41

111

IV
11 10

B
Mean Heath

59 65 72 69 46 62 54 65 56 61
71 80 76

2 0 I

II 5
1

A B
Mean

0 0 0
1

3 5 5 5
7 5 6 5 0 3

Holt

A B
Mean A

0 1 0 3 2 0 0 0

Macrnillan

B
Mean Merrill
A

28 36 32

B
Mean

24 20 22

Nore. The mean percentage scores have been rounded off to the nearest

whole number. The themes of scientific literacy are I = science as a body of knowledge; I1 = science as a way of investigation; 1 1 = science as a 1 way of thinking; and IV = the interaction of science, technology, and society (STS).

four themes (Table 3) in the first chapter. The first page illustrates the inquisitiveness that scientists display in their work. The authors focus on the relationship between science and society, and how science is an activity that is used to examine everyday events. Unfortunately, the first chapter lists and explains the five steps in the scientific method to follow if one desires to study a phenomenon. We say unfortunately because, as many researchers and philosophers of science have pointed out repeatedly, there is no such thing as a scientific method, nor is there a given set of steps used to arrive at the solution to a problem (Beveridge, 1957; Collette & Chiappetta, 1986; Martin et al., 1990; Popper, 1965). The approaches that scientists use to solve
Table 5 Number of Chapters, Pages, and Mean Number o Vocabulary Words in Five Life Science Textbooks f Mean number of vocabulary words per chapter Mean number of vocabulary words per page

Textbook Addison- Wesley Heath Holt Macmillan Merrill

Number of chapters
14

Number of pages

25 22 22 23

570 513 537 493 507

39.00 17.60 13.36 19.14 15.52

0.96 0.86 0.55 0.85 0.70

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795

problems are diverse and creative, and that is what textbooks should convey to students and their teachers. Throughout the rest of the textbook, science as a way of thinking is omitted. STS is treated in a box at the end of the chapter that is devoted to careers, rather than integrating this theme throughout the chapter. Such integration could be achieved in each chapter by describing how technology serves the life scientist in discovering new knowledge and how technological devices benefit society. One should also encounter examples of environmental problems integrated within each chapter that need to be addressed by scientists, engineers, and the general public. The Holt authors begin the first chapter by giving the reader an idea of what a biologist might do in hidher work. They devote several pages to the activities of a marine biologist who studies the ocean floor. The story line places more emphasis upon science as knowledge than upon science as a way of thinking and as a way of investigating. This is evident from the percentages given for the various themes shown in Table 3 . The authors also use three pages of text to describe the scientific method. The remainder of the text presents a balanced view of knowledge and investigation, but omits how scientists have made their discoveries. There is one boxed-in page per chapter devoted to careers in science. The Macmillan authors address problem solving and finding out in Chapter 3. They use the scientific method for the outline of a lengthy discussion of how scientists solve problems. Most of the seven pages devoted to this presentation refer to scientists in general, rather than the work of a particular scientist. This approach is not as interesting when compared to the other textbooks that use a narrative approach in which the authors illustrate the nature of scientific investigation through the experiences of a particular individual. As in the other life science textbooks, this text omits the work and methods used by scientists in the remainder of the book. The Macmillan textbook places heavy emphasis on the presentation of content, with an occasional page devoted to careers and technology. The Merrill authors address the methods of science in Chapter 2. The authors present many ideas related to inquiry, but accomplish this in a declarative manner that practically omits the contributions of individuals who carry out this type of scientific work. There is a presentation of a six-step scientific method. However, the authors do give a three-sentence disclaimer that problem solving is not always a step-by-step process. The authors place the heaviest emphasis in this chapter upon science as a way of investigation (47%), which is defined in this line of inquiry as exercises that engage the learner in conducting hands-on or mental activity. The treatment of science as investigation seems somewhat incoherent as one reads through this section. The rest of the textbook devotes a large amount of written material to the presentation of scientific information (76%). The textbook has some investigations (22%) for students to carry out. There is no inclusion of science as a way of thinking. The amount of information that students are confronted with in science textbooks is of great concern to educators who are interested in promoting meaningful learning and deemphasizing memorizing vocabulary. This is especially true in the seventh grade, where students begin to show a negative change in their attitudes toward science. Therefore, the number of chapters, pages, and vocabulary words were determined. The total number of chapters in these textbooks range from 14 to 25. The Addison-Wesley book has only 14 chapters but the largest number of pages. The total number of pages range from a low of 493 in the Macmillan book to a high of 570 in the Addison-Wesley book. It is interesting to note that the book that has the largest number of pages, also has the least number of chapters. The average number of vocabulary words per chapter found in the books range from 13.36 to 39.00. However, the mean number of vocabulary words per page presents the best perspective of how many major ideas the authors are attempting to develop for a given amount of text space. This analysis indicated that the

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CHIAPPETTA, SETHNA, AND FILLMAN

Addison-Wesley text attempts to develop approximately one major idea per page, whereas the Holt text attempts to develop approximately one idea over two pages. Conclusion All five of the life science textbooks examined in this study set the stage for the study of life science with at least one introductory chapter that addresses the nature of science. Many of the texts attempt to personalize this presentation with descriptions of how individual scientists discovered new ideas. Many of the introductory chapters present the stereotypical steps of the scientific method as the approach to the study of life science and problem solving, which would cause some researchers to question the validity of these texts in presenting an accurate picture of scimce to students as well as to their teachers. The rest of the chapters in these textbooks devote practically no space to science as a way of thinking and thus exclude an important aspect of the nature of science in the presentation of life science topics. Furthermore, very little space is devoted to the interactions among science, technology, and society, in spite of the fact that innumerable scientific and technological advancements have occurred in the life sciences over the past decades that have greatly affected society. The rest of the textbook chapters stress two aspects of scientific literacy: science as a body of knowledge and science as a way of investigating. There is a great deal of written material devoted to presenting definitions and describing life processes, which seem to characterize these teaching aids as simplified or watered-down versions of high school biology textbooks. Many high school biology textbooks are contentoriented, expository texts that are written in an encyclopedic manner. Perhaps middle school life science textbooks should present interesting accounts of how scientists, engineers, and technicians acquire new knowledge and apply that knowledge to solve societal problems. All of the textbooks examined attempt to involve students in paper-and-pencil and hands-on activities within their chapters, which can serve to engage students in reasoning and finding out. This seems to be a positive aspect of these instructional materials, but one that needs more careful examination in future research to better determine their value within a science textbook. References Beveridge, W.I.B. (1957). The art of scientific investigation. New York: Vintage Books. Chiappetta, E.L., Fillman, D.A., & Sethna, G.H. (1991a). A method to quantify major themes of scientific literacy in science textbooks. Journal o Research in Science Teaching, 28, f 7 13-725. Chiappetta, E.L., Fillman, D.A., & Sethna, G.H.(1991b). Procedures for conducting content analysis ofscience textbooks. (Available from the University of Houston, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Houston, Texas 77204-5872.) Chiappetta, E., Sethna G . , & Fillman, D.A. (1987). Curriculum balance in science textbooks. The Texas Science Teacher, 16(2), 9-12. Chiappetta, E.L., Sethna, G.H., Fillman, D.A. (1991). A quantitative analysis of high & school chemistry textbooks for scientific literacy themes and expository learning aids. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28, 939-951. Cohen, J.A. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20, 27-46. Collette, A.T., & Chiappetta, E.L. (1986). Science instruction in the middle and secondary schools. Columbus, OH:Merrill.

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Exline, J.D. (1984). National survey: Science textbook adoption process. The Science Teacher, 51(1), 92-93. Fillman, D.A. (1989). Biology textbook coverage of selected aspects of scientijic literacy with implications for student interest and recall of text information. Unpublished dissertation, University of Houston. Garcia, T.D. (1985). An analysis of earth science textbooks for presentation o aspects of f scientijic literacy. Unpublished dissertation, University of Houston. Harms, N.C., & Yager, R.E. (1981). What research says to the science teacher (Vol. 3 , No. 47 1-114776). Washington, DC: National Science Teachers Association. Martin, B., Kass, H., & Brouwer, W. (1990). Authentic science: A diversity of meaning. Science Education, 74,541-554. Orpwood, G.W., & Soque, J.P. (1984). Summary of background study 52, Science education in Canadian schools. Ottawa, Canada: Science Council of Canada. Pella, M.O., OHearn, G.T., & Gale, C.W. (1966). Scientific literacy-its referents. The Science Teacher, 33(5), 4. Pizzini, E.L., Shepardson, D.P., & Abell, S.K. (1991). The inquiry level of junior high activities: Implications to science teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28, 111121. Popper, K.R. (1965). Conjectures and refutations: The growth of scientijic knowledge. New York: Harper Torchbooks. Roberts, D.A. (1983). Scientific literacy towards balance in setting goals for school science programs. Ontario, Canada: The Publication Office, Science Council of Canada (Cat. No. SS21-5/ 1983-2E). Rubinstein, R.A., & Brown, R.T. (1984). An evaluation of the validity of the diagnostic category of attention deficit disorder. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 54, 398-414. Showalter, V.M. (1974). What is united science education? (Part 5): Program objectives and scientific literacy. Prism, 2(3, 4). Stake, R.E., & Easley, J.A. (1978). Case studies in science education. University of Illinois Center for Instructional Research and Curriculum Evaluation, Urbana. Welch, W.W., & Walberg, H.J. (1972). A national experiment in curriculum evaluation. American Educational Research Journal, 9, 373-383. Yager, R.E. (1983). The importance of terminology in teaching K-12 science. Journal o f Research in Science Teaching, 20, 577-588. Manuscript accepted October 27, 1992.