Sound Advertising

Sound Advertising: A Review of the Experimental Evidence on the Effects of Music in Commercials on Attention, Memory, Attitudes, and Purchase Intention
David Allan, Ph.D. Department of Marketing Saint Joseph's University Online Publication Date: October 23, 2007 Journal of Media Psychology, Volume 12, No. 3, Fall, 2007

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Abstract
This article reviews the empirical studies on the interaction of music and the hierarchy of advertising effects, or specifically attention, memory, attitudes and purchase intention. The most relevant literature is analyzed through the formation of two comprehensive tables of theories and experiments. Music variables such as appeal, fit, melody, mood, tempo, texture, tonality, and valence are shown to influence consumer attitude toward the ad and the brand, recall, pleasure and arousal, and purchase intention. This review provides a summary of the results and the foundation for future research into sound advertising.

Sound Advertising Introduction

It is almost impossible to turn on the radio or the television, or walk into a retail establishment and not witness the marriage of art and commerce. Even before the days of media and malls, music was a major force in consumer marketing. Without exception, music plays a vital role in the interactive process of consumer behavior. The commercial uses of music in marketing account for billions of dollars nationwide. Not surprisingly, this area of study has received considerable attention primarily focused on the impact of music on consumer responses to commercial advertising. There are many stimuli, or environmental cues, that retailers use to affect consumer behavior including music, color, scents, etc. Music is considered to be the most commonly studied stimulus variable (Turley & Milliman, 2000). Most retailers would agree that music is one of their most important considerations and expenses (Yalch & Spangenberg, 1993). Billions of dollars are spent worldwide on music in the retail environment (North & Hargreaves, 1998). Past reviews of experimental evidence in this area have included music as part of a larger review of atmospheric effects (Lam, 2001; Turley & Milliman, 2000), and more narrowly focused on just its effect on shopping behavior (Allan, in press). There are also many stimuli, or executional cues, that advertisers use to affect consumer response to commercials including music, spokespersons, animation, etc. Music is also considered to be the most used executional cue in commercials (Yalch, 1991). Dunbar (1990, p. 200) argued that music makes you watch or listen [to advertising] in a different way than commercials without music and adds an emotional dimension to the consumer response to the brand.

Sound Advertising While it should not be surprising that the effect of music on advertising has been extensively researched, it should be surprising that a current, comprehensive, and critical review of the literature has not been completed. Bruner (1990) provided an early collection of relevant research involving music and advertising as part of the literature review for his Music, Mood and Marketing but that is now more than a decade old. North and Hargreaves (1997) updated the list as part of a larger chapter (Music and Consumer Behaviour) on the commercial and

industrial uses of music (advertising, shops and the music industry) in The Sociology of Music. T This article then, has three purposes. First, it is a review of the most important studies involving music and advertising beginning with the most relevant definitions (Table 1). Second, it is a synthesis and comparison of variables and results. Third, based on what has been done and how it has been executed, it is a foundation and facilitation for future research.

Sound Advertising Table 1 A Summary of Relevant Definitions_______________________________________ Definition________________________________________ Citation__________________ Fit Indexicality Jingle Modality Mood Music Needledrop Placement Popular Music Tempo Texture Tonality The musics relevance or appropriateness to the central ad message. The extent to which the music arouses emotion-laden memories. Unique, novel lyrics written for a particular advertisement. MacInnis & Park (1991) MacInnis & Park (1991) Wallace (1991)

A pitch-related variable that is the configuration of intervals between notes Kellaris & Kent (1991) in the scale such as major and minor modes. A fleeting, temporary feeling state, usually not intense and not tied to a specifiable behavior. A complex chemistry of three main controllable elements (time, pitch and texture). Music that is prefabricated, multipurpose, and highly conventional. The position of the music in the advertisement. Music that is well-liked by ordinary people (Shuker, 1994) that has had wide exposure and appeal but usually for a fixed period of time. A time-related variable that controls pace. Comprised of timbre and orchestra. The configuration of intervals between pitches on a scale. Gardner (1985) Bruner (1990) Scott (1990) Brooker & Wheatley (1994) Shuker (1994) Kellaris & Kent (1991) Kellaris & Kent (1994) Kellaris & Kent (1994)

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Literature Review
The review of literature is divided into two parts. The first part is a discussion of the most cited theories and models including the terms and concepts. The second part is an analysis of the most relevant empirical studies of the effects of music on advertising. A summary table follows each section. Theories and Models Advertising and music have been investigated through many variables with a wide range of outcomes. An analysis of these studies begins with a discussion of the most relevant theories and models. These theories and models provide the foundation of music in advertising experimentation and include attitude theory, classical conditioning theory, involvement theory especially the elaboration likelihood model (ELM), and music theory. Attitude Theory. Fishbeins (1963) attitude theory, that a persons attitude is a function of his salient beliefs activated from memory at a point in time in a given situation, is the primary consideration with all research dealing with attitude toward the ad and attitude toward the brand. As will be apparent in the results section, many researchers have studied musics effect on attitude toward the brand in regard to product preference (Allen & Madden, 1985; Gorn, 1982; Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Middlestadt et al., 1994; Park & Young, 1986; Pitt & Abratt, 1988; Zhu, 2005) and purchase intention (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Morris & Boone, 1998). Others have also considered attitude toward the ad and product preference (Macklin, 1988; Shen et al., 2006) and purchase intention (Morris & Boone, 1998; North et al., 2004). The music variables with regard to attitude toward the brand and the ad that have been most studied are indexicality, or the extent to which the music arouses emotion-laden memories, and fit, or the musics

Sound Advertising relevance or appropriateness to the central ad message, and its effect on the processing of the commercial (MacInnis & Park, 1991). Classical Conditioning Theory. Pavlovs classical conditioning, as it relates to advertising, suggests that positive attitudes towards an advertised product or a conditioned stimulus, usually the brand, might develop through its association in a commercial with stimuli that are reacted to positively, such as music, celebrities, or color. But, research has produced conflicting results.

Gorn (1982) concluded that positive attitudes towards an advertised product, in this case colored pens, might develop through its association in a commercial with other stimuli like music (he used the theme from Grease and classical Indian music). The results of two experiments supported the notion that the simple association between a product and another stimulus such as music can affect product preferences as measured by product choice. Furthermore, an individual who is in a decision-making mode when exposed to a commercial is more affected by the information therein than an individual who is not in a decision-making mode. Many researchers have attempted to extend Gorns study but have been unable to replicate his findings (Allen & Madden, 1985; Alpert & Alpert, 1990, Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Pitt & Abratt, 1988). As it stands, classical conditioning appears to occur unreliably (Kellaris & Cox, 1989) and then only in case of low involvement consumers. Involvement Theory. Involvement Theory in general, and the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) in particular, have been suggested as keys to understanding how music affects responses to advertising. Krugman (1965) defined involvement as the number of conscious bridging experiences, connections, or personal references per minute that a viewer makes between his or her own life and a stimulus (p. 356). Salmon (1986) added that involvement, in any form, seems to mediate both the acquisition and processing of information through activating a

Sound Advertising heightened state of arousal and/or greater cognitive activity in an interaction between an individual and a stimulus (p. 264). Petty and Cacioppos (1986) concept of elaboration likelihood refers to the likelihood one engages in issue-relevant thinking with the aim of determining the merits of the arguments rather than the total amount of thinking per se in which

a person engages (p. 674). ELM assumes that once an individual receives a message, processing begins. Depending on the personal relevance of this information, the receiver will follow one of two routes to persuasion: central and peripheral. When the consumer gives the message a high degree of attention, there is high involvement and thus a central (active) processing route. When the consumer gives the message a low degree of attention, there is low involvement and a peripheral (passive) processing route. Petty and Cacioppo suggested that high involvement was the result of a message with high personal relevance. Researchers that have studied involvement with regard to advertising and music have found that it can positively affect message processing in low involvement conditions (MacInnis & Park, 1991; Park & Young, 1986). Music theory. The idea that music has the potential to enhance attention (stimulate awareness) and memory (recall) has been widely speculated and researched (Adorno 1941, 1976; Bartlett & Snelus, 1980; Bower & Bolton, 1969; Galizio & Hendrick, 1972; Hecker, 1984; Macklin, 1988; Rothschild, 1987; Rubin, 1977; Schulkind et al., 1999; Wallace, 1994). Macklin (1988) found that messages that were sung in a produced, original jingle that sounded like a nursery rhyme produced the same recall from children as spoken messages. Bartlett and Snelus (1980) found that cued recall of lyrics of popular songs from 1921 (When Francis Dances With Me) to 1974 (Morning Has Broken) was higher in response to melodies than in response to titles. Schulkind, Hennis, and Rubin (1999) observed a correlation between music, emotion and autobiographical, long-term memory of older adults and songs from their

Sound Advertising youth when testing the Top 20 from 1935 (On Treasure Island) to 1994 (Thats The Way Love Goes). Some researchers have also observed the enhancement of recall by music. Rubin

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(1977) found that recall of information is improved when cued with the melody of a well known song (Star Spangled Banner). Wallace (1994) found that the melody of a song (using three ballads from The Frank C. Brown Collection of North Carolina Folklore) could facilitate recall of text by providing it with musical structure for learning and remembering. Serafine, Crowder, and Repp (1984), Serafine, Davidson, Crowder, and Repp (1986), and Crowder, Serafine and Repp (1990) suggested an integration effect where the melody or text of a song (using folksongs from Erdei) is better recalled with original text than with different text. These results suggest that music in ads has the potential to stimulate emotion, attention and recall but not all studies support this theory. Galizio and Hendrick (1972) did not observe that memory for verbal information was enhanced by presenting the information in the form of a song (the musical accompaniment of a guitar). A summary of the most cited theories and models including terms and concepts can be seen in Table 2.

Sound Advertising Table 2 A Summary of Relevant Theories and Models ___________________________ Theory____________________________________________________ __Citation________________ Attitude Theory Classical Conditioning Suggests that beliefs are the only mediators of attitude formation and change Fishbein and that a persons attitude is a function of salient beliefs at a particular (1963) moment. The process of behavior modification by which a subject (dog) comes to respond in a desired manner to a previously neutral stimulus (bell) that has been repeatedly presented along with an unconditioned stimulus (food) that elicits the desired response. Assumes that once an individual receives a message, processing begins. When the consumer gives the message a high degree of attention because it is relevant there is high involvement and thus a central (active) processing route. When the consumer gives the message a low degree of attention because it is not relevant, there is low involvement and a peripheral (passive) processing route. The processes of attending to a commercial, learning and remembering its content, developing attitudes, and generating conative [tendency to move towards] responses occur in a sequential causal chain. The number of conscious bridging experiences, connections, or personal references per minute that a viewer makes between his or her own life and a stimulus. The recall of information is improved when cued with the melody of a well known song. The melody of a song can facilitate recall in certain environments. There is a correlation between music, emotion and memory. Pavlov (1927)

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Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Petty & Cacioppo (1986)

Hierarchy of Advertising Effects Involvement

Thorson et al. (1992)

Krugman (1965)

Music Theory

Rubin (1977) Wallace (1994) Schulkind et al. (1999)

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Variables
While the amount of consumer behavior theories and models used in the investigation and explanation of musics effect on advertising may be relatively few, the variables have been many and varied. The following is a summary of the most widely observed independent and dependent variables including a continuum, followed by a comprehensive review of the results of the interaction of these variables. Independent Variables. The impact of music on advertising has been observed with a variety of behaviors when mediated either individually or through the interaction of certain variables. Music appeal (like or dislike) has been observed in relation to product preferences (Allen & Madden, 1985; Gorn, 1982; Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Pitt & Abratt, 1988). The effect of music arousal or mood (a temporary feeling or state) was studied with purchase intention (Alpert & Alpert, 1990; Alpert et al., 2005; Kellaris & Mantel, 1996). Music fit has been observed in relation to message processing (MacInnis & Park, 1991; North et al., 2004; Shen et al., 2006). Different types of music placements/treatments (vocals, instrumentals, jingles, etc.) and recall have been researched (Allan, 2006a; Roehm, 2001; Wallace, 1991, 1994; Yalch, 1991). Music presence has positively affected product preference and purchase attention when interacting with attitude (Macklin, 1988; Morris & Boone, 1998; Middlestadt et al., 1994; Park & Young, 1986; Wheatley & Brooker, 1994) and recall (Macklin, 1988; Olsen, 1995; Wheatley & Brooker, 1994). Finally, music tempo (speed or pace), texture (timbre and orchestration), modality (intervals between notes), and tonality (intervals between pitches in a scale) have been shown to have the potential to enhance pleasure and arousal resulting in a greater purchase intention (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris & Kent, 1991, 1994; Kellaris & Rice, 1993).

Sound Advertising Dependent Variables. When mediated with the above variables, the effect of music in advertising on a variety of consumer responses has also been observed. Attitude toward the ad can be positively influenced by the presence of music (Macklin, 1988; Morris & Boone, 1998;

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North et. al., 2004; Shen et al., 2006). Perception of ad time can be decreased by arousing music (Kellaris & Mantel, 1996). Attitude toward the brand can be improved by appealing music (Allen & Madden, 1985; Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Gorn, 1982; Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Kellaris & Rice, 1993; Middlestadt et al., 1994; Morris & Boone, 1998; Park & Young, 1986; Pitt & Abratt, 1988; Zhu, 2005). Brand recall can be increased by personally relevant and significant music (Allan, 2006a; Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris et. al., 1993; Macklin, 1988; MacInnis & Park, 1991; North et al., 2004; Olsen, 1995; Roehm, 2001; Shen et al., 2006; Wallace, 1991, 1994; Yalch, 1991; Wheatley & Brooker, 1994). Music attitude can be positively affected by tempo (Kellaris & Rice, 1993; Kellaris & Kent, 1994). Pleasure/arousal can be affected by not only the tempo but the tonality and texture of the music (Kellaris & Kent, 1994). Finally, purchase intention can be affected by interaction of music and mood (Alpert & Alpert, 1990; Alpert et al., 2005; Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris & Kent, 1991; Morris & Boone, 1998; North et al., 2004). A continuum of dependent variables and the corresponding independent variables that have been observed can be seen in Figure 1.

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Figure 1 DV/IV Continuum ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _ Attitude Toward the Ad Music fit Ad Time Music arousal Attitude Toward the Brand Music appeal Music presence Brand Recall Music fit Music melody Music presence Music tempo Pleasure/ Arousal Music tempo Music texture Music tonality Purchase Intention Music fit Music melody Music modality Music mood Music placement Music presence Music tempo

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _

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Results
Much has been learned about music and advertising since it was first used in commercials in the early days of radio. Through a survey and analysis of experimental literature and a content analyses of experimental results and their theoretical underpinnings, a better understanding of the interaction of independent and dependent variables or more conversationally, how music affects the processing of the ad, and how much it is being used in advertising, has been achieved. What follows is a discussion of the results. Attitude Toward the Ad Shimp (1981) argued that attitude toward the ad (ATTA) is an important mediator when a consumer makes a choice. Since then, musics potential to affect the consumers ad attitude has received some attention with conflicting results. The presence of music was shown to affect how a viewer feels when looking at print ads (Morris & Boone, 1998). Musical fit resulted in a better attitude toward the ad (North et al., 2004; Shen & Chen, 2006). Brooker and Wheatley (1994), however, reported no effect of music placement on attitude toward the ad. Likewise, Macklin (1988) reported no effect of music presence on attitude toward the ad with children. Ad Time It has been argued that, under some circumstances, there is a disparity between objective time and perceived time of the ad and that the latter is affected by external stimuli like music (Kellaris & Mantel, 1994; 1996). While not a lot of attention has been given to perceived ad time, it is still worth mentioning. Arousal was found to moderate the influence of stimulus congruity on perceived time such that congruity contributed positively to retrospective duration estimates among subjects exposed to soothing (versus arousing) music (Kellaris & Mantel, 1996). The implications of objective time versus perceived time involve the potential benefits to the

Sound Advertising advertiser of increasing memory for the ad while reducing its length (60-second versus 30second commercial). Attitude Toward the Brand Mitchell and Olson (1981) argued that a consumers attitude or internal evaluation of a

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brand has always been an important consideration in marketing research. It is not surprising then, that a considerable amount of investigation into musics effect on attitude toward the brand (ATTB) has been undertaken with a variety of variables and results. Gorn (1982) observed that hearing liked or disliked music can affect product preferences but his results were never replicated (Allen & Madden, 1985; Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Pitt & Abratt, 1988). The presence of music (Blondies Tide Is High) had a facilitative effect on brand attitude (shampoo and their functional performance) in the low involvement condition and a distracting effect for those in the cognitive involvement condition (Park & Young, 1986). Music presence was also shown to have either no effects (Morris & Boone, 1998) or negative effects (Shen et al., 2006) on attitude depending on its fit. As to how the process of attitude change toward the brand occurs, it has been suggested that it might be a belief-based rather than an affect-based change (Middlestadt et al., 1994). Brooker and Wheatley (1994) reported no effect of placement on attitude toward the brand. Macklin (1988) reported no effect of the presence of music on attitude toward the brand with children. Brand Recall Recall of the brand is obviously a primary consideration in the evaluation of the effectiveness of music in advertising. When the music fit, the message processing of the ad was enhanced (MacInnis & Park, 1991; North et al., 2004). Different music treatments (original and altered vocals, instrumentals, jingles, silence) did affect recall differently under varied conditions (Allan,

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2006a; Olsen, 1995: Roehm, 2001; Wallace, 1991, 1994; Yalch, 1991). The presence or absence of music was shown to be both attention-getting (Park & Young, 1988) and distracting (Wheatley & Brooker, 1994). The placement (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994) or the presence of music (Macklin, 1988) was not observed to affect recall. Musical fit, however, was shown to stimulate better recall of brands (North et al., 2004; Shen et al., 2006). Pleasure and Arousal It has been argued that music is an especially powerful stimulus for affecting moods (Bruner, 1990). Thus, it is maybe a bit surprising that musics potential to affect moods primarily through pleasure and arousal garnered a significant amount of attention in the 1990s but not much since. During that time, it was observed that arousing music was found to produce greater degrees of mood enhancement thus positively affecting purchase intention (Alpert & Alpert, 1990; Alpert et al., 2005; Kellaris & Mantel, 1996; Morris & Boone, 1998). Music tempo (fast) was shown to have positive effects on behavioral intent (Kellaris & Kent, 1991). Purchase Intention Since purchase intention or conation was first defined as behavior directed toward action (Shanteau & Ptacek, 1983, p. 149), it has been one of the most difficult advertising effects to research but arguably the most important. With regard to purchase intention and music, the results varied with some observing significant effects (Alpert & Alpert, 1990; Alpert et al., 2005; Kellaris & Kent, 1991) and some observing no significant effects (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Morris & Boone, 1998). The placement of music was shown to invite attention to the message and motivating consumers to process the message and facilitate the potential to purchase (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994). The combination of music with silence also has been shown to be attention-getting resulting in the enhancement of purchase intention (Olsen, 1995). The effect of

Sound Advertising music tempo was shown to have had contradictory results with some reporting a passive effect on purchase intention (Kellaris & Kent, 1991), and some reporting no effect (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Morris & Boone, 1998). Content Analyses Only a few studies have dealt with the amount of commercials on television and radio with

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music. Stewart and Furse (1986, p. 160) found music featured in slightly more than 40% of 1000 television commercials they studied, but that only 12% of those used lyrics to directly convey the advertising message. Similar frequencies were obtained in a follow-up study (Stewart & Koslow, 1989, p. 29). Appelbaum and Halliburton (1993) analyzed international commercials and found music in 89% of their sample (p. 237). Allan (2006b) analyzed commercials in prime-time television and reported that 86% of the unique ads contained some type of music. A summary of the most relevant qualitative and quantitative studies on the effects of music on advertising can be seen in Table 3.

Sound Advertising Table 3 Summary of Relevant Effectual Research Involving Advertising and Music___________________ Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results______________________

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Citation

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Citation Gorn 1982

Sample 244 undergraduates

Table 3 (continued)________________________________________________________ Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results___________________________ Music appeal Brand attitude Hearing liked or disliked music while being exposed to a product can directly affect product preferences. Hearing liked or disliked music while being exposed to a product did not directly affect product preferences. Music had a facilitative effect on brand attitude for subjects in the low involvement condition and a distracting effect for those in the cognitive involvement condition. Background music had no significant effect Hearing liked or disliked music while being exposed to a product did not directly affect product preferences.

Allen & Madden (1985)

60 undergraduates

Music appeal

Brand attitude

Park & Young 120 women (1986)

Music presence/absence, Involvement (high/low) (TV ads)

Brand attitude/information

Sewall & Sarel (1986) Pitt & Abratt (1988)

200 mall shoppers/ 832 radio ads

Music background

Brand recall

172 undergraduate Music appeal students

Brand attitude

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Macklin (1988) Stout & Leckenby (1988)

75 preschoolers

Music background Presence Music tempo; mode; volume; presence Music appeal

Ad attitude Brand attitude Brand recall Cognitive/ Affective responses

Music did not enhance outcomes.

1498 mall shoppers/ 50 TV ads

Music had only minor effects.

Kellaris & Cox 302 (1989) undergraduates

Brand attitude

No evidence that product preferences can be conditioned through a single exposure to appealing or unappealing music. (Classical Conditioning) Music had a significant effect on moods and purchase intention. Tempo and Modality influenced arousal and intent. Indexicality and fit affect the processing of both high- and low-involvement consumers, influencing message- and non-messagebased processing.

Alpert & Alpert (1990) Kellaris & Kent (1991) MacInnis & Park (1991)

48 undergraduate students 180 undergraduates 178 undergraduate women

Music Music tempo/ modality Music fit/ indexicality (TV ads)

Mood Purchase intention Music evaluation Purchase intention Message processing

Citation

Sample

Table 3 (continued)____________________________________________________ Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results_______________________

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Wallace (1991)

120 subjects

Music placementSung/ spoken words (jingles/ ballads) Music placementslogans with and without music (jingles) Music tempo, Loudness, Gender Music-message fit, Attention-gaining value

Brand recall

Music provides a retrieval cue. Music acts as a frame which the text is tightly fit.

Yalch (1991)

103 undergraduates

Brand recall

Music enhances memory for advertising slogans when the slogans were incorporated into an advertisement in the form of a jingle or song. Gender moderates the influence of loudness resulting in females responding more positively to music at lower volumes Increasing audience attention to music enhances message reception when the music evokes message-congruent thoughts.

Kellaris & Rice (1993)

52 undergraduates

Music responses

Kellaris et. al. (1993)

231 undergraduates

Brand recall/ Recognition of brand name and messages

Table 3 _________________________________________ (continued)__________________________________________________ Citation Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results_____________________

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Brooker & Wheatley (1994) Kellaris & Kent (1994)

100 participants

Music tempo/ placement (radio ads) Music tempo/ Tonality/ Texture

Ad attitudes Brand attitudes Purchase intention Brand recall Pleasure/Arousal

Tempo had effects on perception of music but no effect on DVs. Placement had a stronger effect on DVs. Tempo affected pleasure and arousal. Tonality affected pleasure and surprise. Texture moderated tempo and tonality on pleasure. Belief-based change Text is better recalled when it is heard as a song rather than as speech, provided the music repeats so that it is easily learned. Music hindered message recall and did not enhance attention.

288 undergraduates

Middlestadt et al. (1994) Wallace (1994)

97 undergraduates 64 undergraduates

Music presence Music melody

Brand attitude Brand recall

Wheatley & Brooker (1994)

144 undergraduate Music students and their presence/absence parents Spokespersons (radio ads)

Brand recall Cognitive response

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Citation

Sample

Table 3 (continued)_________________________________________________ Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results______________________

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Olsen (1995)

144 undergraduate students

Music presence/absence (music/silence)

Brand recall/ attribute importance

Silence effectively increases listener retention of ad information especially when the highlighted information was the last item of a series. Arousal was found to moderate the influence of stimulus congruity on perceived time such that congruity contributed positively to retrospective duration estimates among subjects exposed to soothing (versus arousing) music. Music affected emotional response of print ads. No effect on brand attitude or purchase intention. Instrumentals produced greater recall of the message if the individuals knew the song. Vocals produced greater recall of the lyrics if the individuals did not know the song.

Kellaris & Mantel (1996)

85 undergraduate students

Music arousal/ congruity (radio ads)

Ad time

Morris & Boone (1998)

90 undergraduates

Music presence/absence (print ads) Music placement versus vocals (radio ads)

Emotional response Brand attitude Purchase Intention Brand recall

Roehm (2001)

48 MBA students/44 community people

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Citation

Sample

Table 3 (continued)____________________________________________________ Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results______________________

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North et. al. (2004)

162 participants

Music/voice fit

Attitude toward the ad Brand recall Purchase Intention

Musical fit resulted in better recall of products, brands, and claims, attitude toward the ad, and purchase intention. Voice fit resulted in better recall of claims, attitude toward the ad, and purchase intention. When music is used to evoke emotions congruent with the symbolic meaning of product purchase, the likelihood of purchasing is enhanced. Intensive processors are sensitive to music meanings. When the music does not fit (music incongruity) it can have an adverse effect on attitudes toward the ad.

Alpert et. al. (2005)

75 undergraduate students

Music mood

Purchase intention

Zhu, Rui & Meyers-Levy, Joan (2005) Shen & Chen (2006)

77/109 undergraduates 130 students

Music meanings (embodied/referential ) Music fit

Brand attitude

Ad attitude

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Future Research
Its been over twenty years since Hecker (1984, p. 7) called music the catalyst of advertising. He suggested that researchers can better understand and use this magic if they understand that music is too important to be wasted on amorphous, irrelevant, or inappropriate goals. While much has been done, there is still great potential for real research into musics effectiveness (Dunbar, 1990). Bruner (1990, p. 102) reinforced in his review of literature that the relevant body of research was indeed still meager and North and Hargreaves (1997, p. 282) concluded that the field is [still] under-investigated. A number of the studies reviewed have suggested additional research that either has not been undertaken or needs additional investigation. These include more collaboration between the private and academic sectors, a longitudinal study on the amount of music in advertising, more attention to the effect of music on brand image, the use of different experimental environments, and finally a richer investigation of the effect of music fit and indexicality on advertising. Advertisers and Academics Alpert and Alpert (1991, p. 236) called for more cooperative efforts between academic researchers and industry practitioners applying musical theories to advertising executioners. Too often the efforts remain separate with the industry findings unavailable. Joint efforts would benefit both parties to better understand when and why music works in advertising (p. 236). Many advertisers use popular music in their advertising especially The Gap and Old Navy. The Gap primarily uses original lyrics with Old Navy utilizing altered lyrics. Since they are both owned by the same parent company, it would be beneficial to not only conduct an academicallybased effectual study as well as to correlate the findings with sales results during the campaign.

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At the very least, private research should be made available to the academic community to verify the results and provide a practical basis for the use of music in advertising. Advertising and Popular Music It is clear that there is a need to more consistently quantify and trend the use of music, especially popular music, in advertising. Stewart and Furse (1986, p. 160) lamented the absence of its systematic measurement and set out to provide such documentation. In a later report, Stewart, Farmer, and Stannard (1990) recommended that additional research was needed in this area. Nonetheless, only Appelbaum and Halliburton (1993) and Allan (2006b) heeded this recommendation by analyzing international commercials. A longitudinal investigation of the amount of music in advertising, especially popular music, should be conducted to track its proliferation and progression. Since the use of popular music in advertising continues to prosper, more needs to also be known about the effects. In fact, Kellaris and Kent (1991, p. 248) suggested further study into the effects of musical components on the processing of verbal material (e.g., song lyrics, advertising messages). More needs to be done with popular music and altered lyrics (e.g. eBay, Old Navy). This could include more diverse demographics and the role of listener characteristics in shaping responses to music (Kellaris & Kent, 1994, p. 397). Additionally, while comparisons have been made between some placements/treatments (vocals/instrumentals, etc.), a larger study needs to be done comparing all possible treatments (vocals, instrumentals, jingles, altered vocals, and a control treatment of silence). Also apparent is the need for further research into the role of background music (Alpert & Alpert, 1990, p. 130). It is also clear that we need further investigations of advertisements with songs that represent varied styles of popular music (Roehm, 2001, p. 57).

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Finally, McChesney (2001) called popular music and advertising the bankruptcy of culture and Burns (1996) called it disturbing and even shocking. Advertisers who use it consider it a marriage of art and commerce and Allan (2005) suggested that the combination of popular music and advertising creates a new cultural product. Clearly, more attention needs to be given to the social and ethical implications of the use of popular music and advertising. This can be done as part of a longitudinal study. Brand Image Stout and Lechenby (1988, p. 223) called for more research into the contribution made by music to brand image. It is clear that many advertisers are using music to create an image (e.g., iPod). What is not so clear is musics effectiveness or the implications for the music and/or artists (e.g., U2). A related area of consideration is the use of music in the imaging of a brand as a distribution channel (e.g., Starbucks). Each of these areas of research is certainly underdeveloped and warrants further investigation. Additionally, some popular music and artists are actually being exposed and branded through advertising (e.g., Modest Mouse) and placement in television shows (e.g., Greys Anatomy). The effects of advertising and media on popular music could also be investigated. Environments Scott (1990, p. 234) argued that we must not let our methods drive our theories but must instead design our methods in a way that can encompass whatever theory seems articulate enough to fully describe the phenomenon. Studies need to be conducted under more realistic viewing and listening conditions. Bruner (1990) agreed and called for the raising of level of experimental sophistication (p. 100). Far too many studies continue to be done in isolated lab environments. One possible idea would be to observe and survey customers in The Gap or Old

Sound Advertising Navy when their respective advertisements are played in the store. Additionally, due to their growing distribution of music, Starbucks provides a potentially effective field experiment location. Fit and Indexicality More studies need to further investigate fit (a persons perception of the musics relevance)

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and indexicality (a persons emotion-laden memories). This research can be expanded to look at various genres and eras of music with special attention given to the personal relevance of the music/effect of processing (ELM). Additionally, more focus needs to be given to the study of executional cues and their processing implications for high- and low-involvement consumers ad processing (MacInnis & Park, 1991, p. 172). It may be that music can influence a persons involvement with advertising due to some conceptualization of involvement (Zaichkowsky, 1986) such as personal, object, or situational characteristics. A great deal of contemporary advertising utilizes classic rock music evidently targeted towards 25-54 males, yet some teenagers are also listening to this genre of music from the 1970s. It may certainly be involving to both demographics with much different indexicality, not to mention fit. Further investigation must be conducted to determine the consequences.

Conclusion
So is your advertising sound if you use sound in advertising? The research suggests that music is more likely to positively than negatively affect the consumers response to your advertising. Thats the easy part but not very helpful to an agency trying to advise an advertiser on whether or not to use music and what music to use. The use of music in general, and the type of music in particular, must be carefully chosen with the target audience and the desired outcome driving the selection. It is clear from this review that music has been shown to both positively and negatively

Sound Advertising

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stimulate a variety of responses including attention, mood, attitude, and purchase intention. The stimulation of these responses is different based on various characteristics of the music itself including its appeal, presence, tempo, background or foreground, etc. In the case of its appeal, different genres of music from different eras affect different demographics of consumers differently. So its complicated. What we do know from this overview of research on music and advertising is that, when used effectively, it can be effective. That sounds rather trite but its true. An advertiser should not just use any music in a commercial just for the sake of using music. It should be carefully chosen and tested to predict its potential to stimulate a positive response for the brand and/or the ad with the ultimate goal of branding and purchase. There is a substantial amount of research out there to guide the advertiser and this review provides the foundation for that process. There is also much research that needs to be done and this review also provides direction and motivation.

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Correspondence should be sent to: David Allan, Ph.D. Department of Marketing Saint Joseph's University 5600 City Avenue Philadelphia, PA 19131 phone: 610-660-1637 e-mail: dallan@sju.edu