Atmospheric Transmission

http://campus.fsu.
edu/
bourassa@met.fsu.edu
The Florida State University
Atmos. Physics II
Atmos. Transmission 1
Atmospheric
Transmission
Topics
1) Concepts: Extinction, Scattering, and Absorption Coefficients (AR7.1)
2) Extinction over a finite path. (AR7.2)
2.1) Different approaches to modeling
2.2) More general definitions
2.3) Non-homogeneous environments
3) Optical Depth (AR7.3)
4) Applications (AR7.4)
4.1) Transmission Spectrum of the atmosphere
4.2) Measuring Solar Intensity from the ground
4.3) Transmittance in an exponential atmosphere
4.4) Optical thickness and transmission of a cloud layer
http://campus.fsu.edu/
Atmos. Physics II
Background and Related Review
We have modeled absorption assuming a constant, non-zero, value for
the imaginary component of the index of refraction.
t
(x) = exp(
a
x )
where
and x is the distance traveled through the medium.
4 4
i i
a
n n
c
i
,
A
= =
Our description of transmission through the atmosphere has been a
little hazy.
All applications have assumed a homogenous atmosphere.
The only processes that we have discussed for diminishing the
transmittance are reflection (non-zero reflectivity) and absorption.
Absorption is the transfer of radiative energy to either thermal
or chemical energy.
Atmos. Physics II
New Considerations
The first is the consideration of scattering in addition to absorption.
In the real world, radiation can be scattered as well as absorbed.
Scattering means that the direction changes without absorption.
The absorption coefficient (
a
) will be modified accordingly.
The transmittance equation can be conceptually modified to apply to
only direct transmission.
The second is the consideration of non-homogeneous environments.
The absorption and scattering properties will change depending on the
location in the atmosphere.
Therefore we will start with a differential equation, equivalent to the
transmittance equation, for which we can consider the change in
transmittance over an infinitesimally small distance.
Later we will also consider that the radiation can also be scattered into the
direction of propagation.
We will make the transmittance equation more general in two ways.
Atmos. Physics II
Example of Scattering
Example wave of
electromagnetic
magnetic radiation
scattering off a particle.
It is not absorbed then
emitted.
Portions of it change
direction.
Graphic from A First Course in Atmospheric Radiation by G. W. Petty
Atmos. Physics II
Example of Scattering and Absorption I
The following example comes from C. Bohrens Clouds in a Glass of Beer,
and from Pettys Atmospheric Radiation.
Imagine three Petrie dishes, each partially filled with water.
Set these on an overhead projector
The water absorbs a negligible portion of the flux density.
water
water
water
Atmos. Physics II
Example of Scattering and Absorption II
On the projection screen, the milk and ink dishes both look black.
However, the blackness occurs for different reasons
The ink absorbs the light, and
The milk scatters the light
Viewed looking towards the screen
Add several drops of India ink to one dish, and several teaspoons of
milk to another dish.
Atmos. Physics II
Example of Scattering and Absorption II:
Verification
Approach 1: View the dishes from the side, against a dark background.
The ink dish appears to be nearly black.
The milk dish lights up due to illumination from the projector.
The light beam is redirected towards your eyes.
How do we know that the light is not absorbed and emitted?
Approach 2: measure the rate of change in temperature of the fluid in both
dishes.
The ink dish heats more rapidly than the milk dish.
Therefore the ink dish is absorbing light (energy) more rapidly than the
milk dish.
How would you verify that the ink absorbs the light, and that the milk
scatters the light? Assume that we have a real overhead projector with
the Petrie dishes.
Atmos. Physics II
What Does the Previous Experiment
Tell Us about Modeling Transmittance?
Clearly there are two mechanisms by which EMR can be removed from the
direct beam: absorption and scattering.
If India ink is added to the Petrie dish containing milk, then both
mechanisms come into play. How do we revise
t
(x) = exp(
a
x )
to model these considerations?
Replace the absorption coefficient (
a
) with an extinction coefficient (
e
)
that accounts for both processes: t
(x) = exp(
e
x ).
Where
e
=
a
+
s
.
For the original milk solution
a
0, therefore
e

s
.
For the India ink solution
s
0, therefore
e

a
.
Atmos. Physics II
Singular Scatter Albedo
low ~0 wavelength dependent
High <1 wavelength dependent
High near 1 wavelength independent
weak <<1 ~ wavelength independent
low near 1 wavelength dependent
.
s
s a
,
.
, ,
=
For some applications it is very important to know the relative importance of

scattering and absorption.
This relative importance is described by the singular scatter albedo ( ).
.
Examples
e
Wavelength Dependence
Red wine
Chocolate Milk
A Cloud
Diesel Truck Exhaust
Cloud Free Atmosphere
The singular scatter albedo ranges from zero (total absorption) to 1 (total
scattering).
Atmos. Physics II
Extinction Over a Finite Path
- The Fundamentals -
For work in an atmosphere, we should consider the following.
An extinction coefficient that is spatially dependent (varies with
location).
A path that is not necessarily aligned with the x-axis.
The path alignment is dealt with (somewhat superficially) by replacing x
with a distance s.
We continue to assume that over an infinitesimal distance (ds) the
extinction coefficient (
e
) is constant, and that the rate of change in
intensity (dI
) is negative and proportional to the intensity (I
).
dI
= I
(s+ds) I
(s) = I
(s)
e
(s) ds, or the familiar
( )
d
dlog d
e
I
I s
I
A
A
A
, = =
If the extinction coefficient is constant with respect to location and
time, it is very easy to model transmission over any path. However, in
the real world.
Atmos. Physics II
Going Beyond An Infinitesimal Path
This equation is a more general form of Beers law.
In the next slides we will summarize (review) previous simplified
statements in terms of Beers law.
To make the previous equation apply to a finite, but not infinitesimal,
path length (s), we must integrate the equation.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
2 1
log log d
s
e
s
I s I s s s
A A
, =
]
Integrating from s
1
to s
2
results in
( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
2 1
exp d
s
e
s
I s I s s s
A A
,
l
=
l
l
l
]
Taking the exponent of both sides results in
Atmos. Physics II
Optical Path
Optical path is also known as optical depth or optical thickness for
applications that are purely vertical.
The optical path is dimensionless. How would you explain this?
Optical depth can have any value from zero to infinity.
It is zero when s
1
= s
2
, and when
= 0 at all points between s
1
= s
2
.
Otherwise it is positive.
Recall that ( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
2 1
exp d
s
e
s
I s I s s s
A A
,
l
=
l
l
l
]
( )
2
1
d
s
e
s
s s t , =
]
The optical path () is the integral of the extinction coefficient in the
above equation.
Atmos. Physics II
Transmittance
If
e
is constant between s
1
and s
2
, then =
e
(s
2
s
1
).
Recall that ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
1 2
1
,
2 1 1
exp d e
s
s s
e
s
I s I s s s I s
t
A A A
,

l
= =
l
l
l
]
The transmittance t(s
1
,s
2
) is equal to e
, where is the optical path

from s
1
to s
2
.
( ) ( ) ( )
2 1 1 2
, I s I s t s s
A A
=
The transmittance can have values from zero to one.
t = 0 when , and
t = 1 when = 0.
Transmittance is unitless. It is the fraction of intensity that passes
directly from s
1
to s
2
.
Atmos. Physics II
Linking Multiple Paths
Then the optical path for the whole system equals the sum of the individual
optical paths
(s
1
,s
N
) = (s
1
,s
2
) + (s
2
,s
3
) + (s
3
,s
4
) + + (s
N1
,s
N
).
The transmittance for the whole system equals the product of the individual
transmittances.
t(s
1
,s
N
) = t(s
1
,s
2
) t(s
2
,s
3
) t(s
3
,s
4
) t(s
N1
,s
N
).
Consider EMR moving along series of paths: s
1
to s
2
, s
2
to s
3
, s
3
to s
4
,
, s
N1
to s
N
.
Atmos. Physics II
Example for Transmittance
Short wave reaching the cloud top = t
sw1
F
Short wave reaching the cloud base = t
swc
t
sw1
F
Short wave reaching the Surface = t
sw2
t
swc
t
sw1
F
Top of
atmosphere
Cloud layer
Surface
F=500 Wm
-2
Atmospheric layer 1
Atmospheric layer 2
t
sw1
= 0.5 a
sw1
= 0.5 r
sw1
= 0
t
sw2
= 0.8 a
sw2
= 0.2 r
sw2
= 0
t
swc
= 0.5 a
swc
= 0.5 r
swc
= 0
250 Wm
-2
125 Wm
-2
100 Wm
-2
250 Wm
-2
125 Wm
-2
25 Wm
-2
Atmos. Physics II
Example for Short Wave Energy
We are assuming specular reflection, which minimizes influences of reflected EMR.
Reflections cause a large increase in SW absorption in the upper layer.
Short wave albedo of the system is (37.5 + 4.15) / 500 8.33%
Top of
atmosphere
Cloud layer
Surface
F=500Wm
-2
Atmospheric layer 1
Atmospheric layer 2
t
sw1
= 0.5 a
sw1
= 0.5 r
sw1
= 0
t
sw2
= 0.8 a
sw2
= 0.2 r
sw2
= 0
t
swc
= 0.5 a
swc
= 0.5 r
swc
=
0.3
250Wm
-2
250Wm
-2
87.5Wm
-2
87.5 Wm
-2
69.8 Wm
-2
17.7Wm
-2
75Wm
-2
37.5Wm
-2
37.5Wm
-2
t
sw2
= 0 a
sw2
= 1 A
sw2
= 0.3
48.8Wm
-2
1.2Wm
-2
2.8Wm
-2
4Wm
-2
5Wm
-2
1Wm
-2
8.3Wm
-2
8.3Wm
-2
4.15Wm
-2
4.15 Wm
-2
21Wm
-2
16.6Wm
-2
4.4Wm
-2
Total 51.6Wm
-2
Net 438.35Wm
-2
Atmos. Physics II
Example for Long Wave Transmittance
Why is the temperature of the atmosphere unimportant in this example?
What does this situation suggest about thermal equilibrium in the
atmosphere, and energy balance at the top of the atmosphere?
Top of
atmosphere
Cloud layer
Surface
Atmospheric layer 1
Atmospheric layer 2
t
lw1
= 1 a
lw1
= 0 r
lw1
= 0
t
lw2
= 1 a
lw2
= 0 r
lw2
= 0
t
lwc
= 0.0 a
lwc
= 0.9 r
lwc
= 0.1
291.65Wm
-2
95.8Wm
-2
23.1Wm
-2
t
lw2
= 0 a
1w2
= 1 A
1w2
= 0.05
145.83Wm
-2
145.82Wm
-2
14.58Wm
-2
131.24Wm
-2
65.62Wm
-2
65.62Wm
-2
37.40Wm
-2
3.28Wm
-2
1.33Wm
-2
1.33Wm
-2
1.26Wm
-2
2.85Wm
-2
0.3Wm
-2
2.66Wm
-2
0.2Wm
-2
Net -227.36Wm
-2
Total 41.51Wm
-2
Atmos. Physics II
Note: other energy absorbed in the cloud layer is included in the other
slides.
Top of
atmosphere
Cloud layer
Surface
Atmospheric layer 1
Atmospheric layer 2
t
lw1
= 1 a
lw1
= 0 r
lw1
= 0
t
lw2
= 1 a
lw2
= 0 r
lw2
= 0
t
lwc
= 0.0 a
lwc
= 0.9 r
lwc
= 0.1
291.65Wm
-2
95.8Wm
-2
23.1Wm
-2
t
lw2
= 0 a
1w2
= 1 A
1w2
= 0.05
Total 46.76Wm
-2
47.9Wm
-2
47.9Wm
-2
45.5Wm
-2
2.4Wm
-2
0.24Wm
-2
2.16Wm
-2
1.08Wm
-2
1.08Wm
-2
1.03Wm
-2
0.23Wm
-2
Net -48.98Wm
-2
0.24Wm
-2
Atmos. Physics II
Top of
atmosphere
Cloud layer
Surface
Atmospheric layer 1
Atmospheric layer 2
t
lw1
= 1 a
lw1
= 0 r
lw1
= 0
t
lw2
= 1 a
lw2
= 0 r
lw2
= 0
t
lwc
= 0 a
lwc
= 0.9 r
lwc
= 0.1
291.65Wm
-2
95.8Wm
-2
23.1Wm
-2
t
lw2
= 0 a
1w2
= 1 A
1w2
= 0.05
11.55Wm
-2
11.55Wm
-2
1.15Wm
-2
10.4Wm
-2
5.2Wm
-2
5.2Wm
-2
0.90Wm
-2
17.0Wm
-2
0.81Wm
-2
0.09Wm
-2
0.41Wm
-2
0.40Wm
-2
0.475Wm
-2
Net -6.75Wm
-2
Total 17.475Wm
-2
0.09Wm
-2
1.15Wm
-2
Atmos. Physics II
Example for Transmittance:
Surface Temperature
(10.53)T
4
= 51.6 + 41.45 + 46.76 + 17.475 Wm
-2
= 157.285Wm
-2
T = 280K
Top of
atmosphere
Cloud layer
Surface
Atmospheric layer 1
Atmospheric layer 2
t
lw1
= 1 a
lw1
= 0 r
lw1
= 0
t
lw2
= 1 a
lw2
= 0 r
lw2
= 0
t
lwc
= 0.1 a
lwc
= 0.9 r
lwc
= 0.1
t
lw2
= 0 a
lw2
= 1 A
lw2
= 0.95
T
4
Wm
-2
51.6 Wm
-2
17.475Wm
-2
46.76 38.43
0.09 T
4
Wm
-2
0.81T
4
Wm
-2
0.1T
4
0.405T
4
Wm
-2
0.405T
4
0.53T
4
Wm
-2
0.02T
4
Wm
-2
Atmos. Physics II
Approximations & Simplifications
Then a = 1 t 1 [1 (s
1
,s
2
)]
a (s
1
,s
2
)
a
e
(s
2
s
1
)
Consider the propagation of EMR through a medium that is almost
transparent.
The optical path, (s
1
,s
2
) << 1
The transmittance t(s
1
,s
2
) = e
Use the approximation that for small x, e

x
= 1 x
Then t(s
1
,s
2
) = e
1 (s
1
,s
2
)
If the extinction coefficient is approximately constant
throughout the medium, then (s
1
,s
2
)
e
(s
2
s
1
)
In which case, t(s
1
,s
2
) = e
1 (s
1
,s
2
) 1
e
(s
2
s
1
)
Now consider absorptance (a) for the above case, with the further
assumptions that extinction is purely due to absorption.
Atmos. Physics II
Mass Extinction Coefficient I
The mass extinction coefficient (k
e
) describes the fraction of EMR that is
absorbed per unit mass encountered.
Consider the example of a Petrie dish half filled with water, to which five
drops of India ink has been added.
The volume extinction coefficient for the solution can be calculated.
Consider the full Petrie dish, with the same five drops of India ink.
The absorptance is the same as the previous case, but the volume
extinction coefficient is half the value of the previous case.
Similarly, if only the ink is in the Petrie dish, the absorptance is unchanged,
but the volume extinction coefficient is very large.
So far in this section, we have described the volume extinction
coefficient
e
as a measure of how strongly a medium absorbs EMR
over a unit distance. This is not always the best approach.
Atmos. Physics II
Mass Extinction Coefficient II
The mass per unit area is equal to the density times the thickness.
The volume extinction coefficient (
e
) can be related to the mass extinction
coefficient (k
e
) through

e
= k
e
Recall that the units for
e
are m
-1
, therefore the units
of k
e
are m
2
kg
-1
.
These units could also be interpreted as a cross-section per unit mass.
The transmittance (for a homogeneous medium) is
t(s
1
,s
2
) = exp( k
e
s)
And the optical path becomes = k
e
(s
2
s
1
).
The concept of the mass extinction coefficient is extremely useful because
the value of k
e
is independent of density.
In the previous examples, the one constant was the mass of ink.
Atmos. Physics II
Extinction Cross-Section
The volume extinction coefficient (
e
) can be related to the extinction
cross-section (
e
) through

e
=
e
N
Recall that the units for
e
are m
-1
, therefore the units
of
e
are m
2
(per particle).
These units could also be interpreted as a cross-section per particle.
The extinction cross-section (
e
) can be related to the mass extinction
coefficient (k
e
) through
e
= k
e
m, where m is the mass per particle.
Another frequently used variable describing extinction is the extinction
cross-section (
e
) for a single particle
Used when particle concentrations are known.
Particle in this context is rather general, applying to rain drops,
pollutants, molecules, or any absorbing material.
Concentration (N) means number density (e.g., number of ozone
molecules per unit volume)
Atmos. Physics II
Extinction Cross Section Example
For the visible and infrared portions of the spectrum, the extinction cross
section is usually proportional to the size of the droplet.
The extinction efficiency (Q
e
) for a droplet can be defined as ratio of the
extinction cross section (
e
) to the cross-sectional area (A) of the droplet:
Cloud droplets are sufficiently small that they can be described as
spherical: A = r
2
.
Q
e
=
e
/ A
If someone had to guess the range of Q
e
, a range of zero to one would seem
like a reasonable guess.
For the visible spectrum, Q
e
for cloud droplets averages around 2, and can
be much larger for a small part of the spectrum.
One very good example of an application is cloud droplets.
Atmos. Physics II
Generalization To
Scattering and Absorption
The previously discussed extinction coefficients can be written for
separate absorption and scattering coefficients.

a
= k
a
= N
a
and
s
= k
s
= N
s
Absorption efficiency and Scattering Efficiency can be written as
Q
a
=
a
/ A and Q
s
=
s
/ A
s s s s
s a e e e
k
k
, , o
.
, , , o
= = = =
The single scatter albedo can also be written in terms of any of these
scattering coefficients.
Atmos. Physics II
Arbitrary Mixtures of Components
A realistic atmosphere is a mix of gasses, particles, ice, and water
droplets.
, , e mix e i
i
, , =
_
Determining the combined influence of these constituents is actually
straight forward.
The volume extinction coefficient for a mixture is equal to the sum
of volume extinction coefficients for each constituent.
where
e,i
is
e
for the i
th
constituent.
Each of these atmospheric constituents has different concentrations
and different extinction characteristics.
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
e mix e i i e i i e i
i i i
a mix a i i a i i a i
i i i
s mix s i i s i i s i
i i i
k N
k N
k N
, , j o
, , j o
, , j o
= = =
= = =
= = =
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
Similarly,
Atmos. Physics II
Example

s,w
=
e,w
=
w
k
e,w
= 0.1gm
-3
150m
2
/kg = 0.015m
-1

e
=
e,w
+
e,a
= 0.015m
-1
+ 0.01m
-1
= 0.025m
-1

a
=
a,w
+
a,a
= 0 + 0.01m
-1
= 0.01m
-1

s
=
s,w
+
s,a
= 0.015m
-1
+ 0 = 0.015m
-1
=
s
/
e
= 0.015m
-1
/ 0.025m
-1
= 0.6
Consider a plane parallel cloud, with a liquid water density (
w
) of
0.1gm
-3
, and a thickness (z) of 100m.
At the wavelength of interest, the mass absorption coefficient (k
e,w
)
(for water) equals 150m
2
/kg, and a single scattering albedo of 1.0.
The air in the cloud also absorbs, with
Volume absorption coefficient (
e,a
) equals 10km
-1
, and
A single scattering albedo of 0.0.
(1) Compute
e
,
a
,
s
, and single scattering albedo for the mixture.
= 1, so
a,w
= 0, and
First consider for the water.
Now calculate the the volume extinction coefficients
Atmos. Physics II
Plane Parallel Assumption
- The Setup -
Our atmosphere is highly stratified, particularly in the stratosphere.
The troposphere is relatively well mixed chemically, but not so
well mixed for radiative applications.
Vertical gradients of pressure (1mb/8m) and temperature ~7C/km) are
usually much larger than horizontal gradients.
It follows from the ideal gas law (meteorology version) that the
density must be highly stratified, and
From the chemistry version of the ideal gas law, it follows that the
concentration of gasses is highly stratified.
The stratification of
e
can be seen through the link between
e
and
either k
e
or
e
.
Recall that we can use Beers law to describe the transmission from a
starting point (s
1
) to an end point (s
2
), without assuming anything
about how the extinction coefficient (
e
) varies.
However, making no assumptions about the variability of
e
is
rather hard to work with (even for a computer).
Atmos. Physics II
- The Concept -
Exceptions include cumuloform clouds, the horizontal boundaries of
stratiform clouds, fronts, tropical cyclones, many mid-latitude storms, some
land/sea boundaries.
What does the above suggest about the use of a plane parallel assumption
in NWP applications (e.g., a reanalysis with 100km resolution)?
What does it suggest about the interaction between clouds and radiation,
which many people believe is fundamental in modeling climate change?
We also assume that we can ignore the curvature of the earth.
The previous comments indicate that radiative absorption (and hence
emission) characteristics tend to change far more rapidly in the vertical
than they do in the horizontal.
Suggesting that if the horizontal scale is sufficiently small, the
horizontal variability can be ignored.
Atmos. Physics II
- The Math -
Note that the optical thickness does not depend on the angle at which
the EMR approaches the atmosphere; however, the transmittance does
depend on this angle.
Mathematically, the plane parallel assumption can be written as

e
(x,y,z) =
e
(z) , (x,y,z) = (z) , P(x,y,z) = P(z) , .
The path distance s can be written as
s = z / ,
where = |cos()|, and
is the angle of propagation relative to zenith (i.e., relative to up).
( ) ( )
2
1
1 2
,
z
e
z
z z z dz t , =
]
The optical thickness between two layers becomes
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
1
, exp , t z z z z t
j
l
l
=
l
l
The transmittance becomes
Atmos. Physics II
Optical Depth as a Vertical Coordinate
In summary,
The optical depth is a finite positive number at the surface, and
The optical depth decreases in height until it reaches zero at the
effective top of the atmosphere.
This situation make it easy to use optical depth as a vertical coordinate.
The transmittance through a layer from z
1
to z
2
becomes
t(z
1
,z
2
) = exp[-(z
1
,z
2
)] = t(z
1
) / t(z
2
)
( )
( ) ( )
,
top
Lim
z top e
z
z z z z dz t t ,

= =
]
The top of the layer over which we calculate optical thickness can be
arbitrarily far above the earths surface.
This top can be at infinity, which we will approximate as being far
enough from earth that there is approximately no atmosphere to
cause any absorption.
We can then determine optical thickness from this layer top to any
height closer to the surface.
Atmos. Physics II
The Atmospheric Transmission Spectrum
When considering energy balances or remote sensing applications it is
useful to know the following.
At which wavelengths is the cloud free atmosphere reasonably
transparent?
At which wavelengths is the cloud free atmosphere strongly absorbing,
and which constituents are responsible for this absorption?
How do the extinction and scattering properties of clouds vary with
wavelength?
Atmos. Physics II
Absorption by Atmospheric Gasses
Transmittance is primarily determined/controlled by absorptance.
Scattering is important for UV and short visible wavelengths, but has
little influence (in the atmosphere) at longer wavelengths.
Where absorptance is large, the transmittance is small, and vice-versa.
The following table describe properties of key constituents
Relative to Absorption
Constituent dry air Bands Remark
N
2
78.1% none
O
2
20.9% UV-C, MW near 60
and 180GHz, weak in
visible and IR
H
2
O 0 to 2% Many strong band in IR Highly
and MW Variable
Atmos. Physics II
Atmospheric Constituents
Many of the less abundant constituents have a disproportionally large
influence.
While some gasses have near constant concentrations, others are highly
variable in space and time.
Constituent Indryair Absorption Bands Remark
Inert gasses 0.936% none
CO
2
370ppm near 2.3, 4.8, and 15m increasing
CH
4
1.7ppm near 3.3 and 7.8m increasing
N
2
O 0.35ppm 4.5, 7.8, and 17m
CO 0.07ppm 4.7m (weak)
O
3
~10
-8
UV-B, 9.6m highly
variable
CFCl
3
, CF
2
Cl
2
~10
-10
IR Industrial
Atmos. Physics II
Absorption by Atmospheric Gasses
Absorptivity is the
fraction of
electromagnetic
radiation absorbed.
It is a function of
wavelength
(shown),
And on the quantity
of the gas in the
atmosphere
Graphic from Meteorology by Danielson, Levin and Abrams
The quantity (and altitude) of IR absorbing gasses in the atmosphere
influence the atmospheric temperature distribution.
Changes in the concentrations of the gasses (either natural or man-made)
cause changes in the energy balance.
Atmos. Physics II
Zenith Transmittance
Note that scattering is not
considered.
This is a significant
shortcoming for
< 0.5m.
Transmittance is the
fraction of electromagnetic
radiation transmitted.
It is a function of
wavelength (shown),
And on the quantity of
the gas in the
atmosphere.
Atmos. Physics II
Example: Zenith Microwave Transmittance
From this relatively simple constituent model of the atmosphere, windows
and absorption bands are apparent.
How is the total transmittance determined from the components?
Atmos. Physics II
Zenith Atmospheric Transmittance Through Clear
Air, Including Consideration of Scattering
The dashed line indicates the loss of transmittance due to scattering.
The black line includes absorption and scattering.
Clearly scattering is the dominant mechanism for the more energetic
shortwave EMR.
Atmos. Physics II
Measuring Solar Intensity
From The Ground
This equation is in the form of a line:
y = log(I
) & x = sec()
slope =
& y-int = log(S
)
So long as the pressure and atmospheric
moisture dont change much, one day
of observations can be used to estimate
S
and
.
It was possible to determine solar intensity prior to the advent of
satellites.
How was that done when the atmospheric transmittance was also
not known?
/
I S e
A
t j
A A
=
Consider a plane parallel atmosphere. Then
Where = cos(), and
is the solar zenith angle.
( ) ( ) log / log I S
A A A
t j = Taking the log of both sides results in
Atmos. Physics II
EMR Interaction With
A Layer Including Particles That Scatter
EMR is transmitted without scattering.
The fraction is called the direct transmittance t
dir
.
EMR is scattered, but eventually makes it through the scattering layer.
The fraction is called the diffuse transmittance t
diff
.
EMR is scattered, and does not make it through the layer.
This fraction can be thought of as reflectivity, r.
EMR is absorbed, which is described by absorptivity, a.
If these are all possible outcomes, then the fractions must add to one.
t
dir
+ t
diff
+ a = 1
Consider EMR interacting with a layer that scatters.
In other words, the layer contains objects that cause scattering.
Without these objects, the layer would be no different from the
surrounding air.
The possible outcomes can be put into four categories.
Atmos. Physics II
Transmittance Through
an Exponential Atmosphere
To a good approximation, the density () of the atmosphere decays
exponentially with height (z).
Where
o
is the density at sea level, and H8km is the atmospheric
scale height.
If an atmospheric constituent is well mixed, then the density of that
constituent (
i
) would be
Where w
i
is the mixing ratio (the mass of the constituent per unit mass
of the atmosphere)
Let us assume that the absorption coefficient depends on , but it does not
depend on temperature, pressure, etc.
If the constituent is non-scattering, the k
e
= k
a
.
Then
( )
/ z H
o
z e j j

=
( )
/ z H
i i o
z w e j j

=
( )
/
i i
z H
e a i o
z k w e , j

=
Atmos. Physics II
What Can We Do
With These Assumptions?
Determine the relationship between the altitude z, and the optical depth as
a vertical coordinate.
Determine the transmittance from the top of the atmosphere to any level z.
Determine where the EMR is absorbed, and where the greatest rate of
absorption exists.
We will explore each of the concepts.
Atmos. Physics II
Optical Depth As A Vertical Coordinate
Note that the language varies among sub-disciplines of atmospheric
science. If the atmospheric constituent is water vapor, then the mass path is
known as total precipitable water, column integrated water vapor, water
vapor burden and water vapor path.
( ) ( )
e
z
z z dz t ,

=
]
Recall that the optical depth is
( )
/ /
i i
z H z H
a i o a i o
z
i i
z k w e dz k w He t j j
= =
_ _
]
( )
( )
i
a i o
i
z k w H t j
+
=
_
Then
And the total optical depth is
This result indicates that a unit change in corresponds to a
smaller change in z nearer to the surface.
( ) ( )
i i
z
u z z dz j

=
]
The mass path is given as
And is useful because (z) = k
a
u(z)
Atmos. Physics II
Transmittance
Recall that t = exp( (z) / ).
Then
This looks unusual, but it is pretty easy to apply.
( )
/
exp
i
a i o
z H
i
k w H
t z e
j
j
l
l
=
l
l
Atmos. Physics II
Absorption
The above equation simplifies to W(z) = dt(z) / dz
This result indicates that the rate of energy absorbed is proportional to
the change in transmittance with height,
The rate of energy absorbed with height is equal to the change in
transmission with height.
The absorptivity between two levels is equal to the absorptivity from
the top of the atmosphere to the bottom of the layer (z
1
), minus the the
absorptivity from the top of the atmosphere to the top of the layer (z
2
):
a(z
1
,z
2
) = a(z
1
,) a(z
2
,) = [1 t(z
1
)] [1 t(z
2
)] = t(z
2
) t(z
1
)
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ,
lim lim lim
a z z z t z t z z t z z t z
W z
z z z
l l l
^ ^ ^
l l l
= = =
l l l
^ ^ ^
l l l
z0 z0
If we define z = z
2
z
1
, then we can examine the absorption per unit
altitude, W(z).
z0
Atmos. Physics II
More on Absorption
( )
( ) ( )
( )
/ /
1
z z
d z
d
W z e e
d z d z
t j t j
t
j

= =
Recall that t = exp( (z) / ), and substitute this equation into our
equation for W.
( ) ( )
e
z
z z dz t ,

=
]
( )
( )
e
d z
z
d z
t
, =
Recall that
This implies that
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
/ / z z e e
z z
d
W z e e t z
d z
t j t j
, ,
j j

= = =
Therefore
This result is extremely general. It does not depend on our assumption
about a well mixed atmosphere, or density dependence with height.
Atmos. Physics II
Location of Absorption
This result is shown as the
dashed line in the figure.
( )
( )
/
i
z H
a i o
i
z k w He t j

=
_
( )
( )
/
i
z H
e a i o
i
z k w e , j

=
_
Now consider our idealized exponential atmosphere. Recall that
&
( )
( ) ( )
/ /
1
exp
i i
z H z H
o
a i o a i
i i
H
W z k w e k w e
j
j
j j

l
l
=
l
l
_ _
Then
( )
/ /
exp
z H z H
W z e e
H
t t
j j
+ +

l
l
=
l
l
This can be simplified:
( )
( )
0
0
i
a i
i
z k w H t t j
+
= = =
_
Atmos. Physics II
Altitude of Peak W(z)
The altitude at which W(z) is a maximum can be found through the typical
approach.
Take the derivative of W(z) with respect to z.
dW/dz = 0
Solving
Results in
Which is satisfied when
/ /
d
exp 0
d
z H z H
e e
z H
t t
j j
+ +

' '
l
1 1
1 1
l
=
! !
l
1 1
1 l1
+ +
/ / /
exp 1 0
z H z H z H
e e e
t t
j j
+ +

l l
l l
=
l l
l l
/
1
z H
e
t
j
+
=
1
t
j
=
Atmos. Physics II
Weighting for Atmospheric Profiling
Consider the function that we have already discussed for determining the
altitude of absorption.
This function can be thought of as a weighting function, describing
(relatively speaking) how much absorption occurs at each altitude.
Similar approaches (using Scharzschilds Equation; see chapter 8 of
Pettys book) can be used to determine weighting functions for
emission (from the surface and the atmosphere).
One common remote sensing application is attempts to estimate the
atmospheric temperature or humidity profiles.
Note that with newer sensors the word profile is no longer used in
product descriptions, suggesting that there are some problems in
these techniques.
The reasons for the difficulties in retrieving profiles are to be
discussed.
Atmos. Physics II
Example of A Set of
Idealized Weighting Function
Example (c) shows an even more
realistic case, where the weighting
functions overlap.
With just 3, 6, or 11 wavelengths,
the problem is grossly
underdetermined.
Example (b) shows a more realistic
case, where the temperature would
correspond to a weighted average
over a range of heights.
Example (a) shows a very
idealized set of three weighting
functions (delta functions).
Each of the weighting
functions corresponds to a
different wavelength,
indicating the temperature
(or humidity) at one height.
Typically there would also
be one wavelength for the
surface.
Atmos. Physics II
Example of AMSU Weights
AMSU stands for Advanced
Microwave Sounding Unit.
It has 11 channels (4 to 14)
for atmospheric profiling.
Several of these channels
apply to the stratosphere.
The tropospheric profile is
still grossly underdetermined.
Furthermore, the weights are
far from independent.
Atmos. Physics II
The Weaknesses in Such Profiles 1
In practice, there are far more changes in T(z) (or dT(z) / dz) than there are
channels.
Some of the new instruments have hundreds of relevant channels.
Nevertheless, the problem is still ill posed.
There are more unknowns than observations
Ill posed problems are impractical to solve routinely with good accuracy.
The odds can be improved by using information from the previous
sounding.
However, this approach fails miserably when there are substantial
differences in the current and previous profiles (e.g., a frontal passage).
Atmos. Physics II
The Weaknesses in Such Profiles 2
All observations are subject to random and systematic errors.
The retrieval system should be robust when confronted with realistic
noise.
Biases, due to errors in physical assumptions, can also modify results.
The large vertical distribution of individual weighting functions acts to
smooth (blur) the retrieval. A smoothing constraint is also often added to
remove wild oscillations in the solution.
Despite these problems, satellite derived profiles have been used in many
numerical weather prediction models.
The large overlap in weighting functions means that the adjacent
weighting functions are not completely independent.
Statistically speaking, if you have N channels, then you have less
than N independent pieces of information.
Atmos. Physics II
Modern NWP Solutions
to The Weaknesses
It is possible to compare the solution for the atmospheric profile to other
observations and to models.
If the differences are two big, then the observed profile can be treated
as too suspect, and ignored.
The solution can be constrained in a way that minimizes the error.
Alternatively, the observed radiances can be used to constrain the model.
Radiative fluxes (or flux densities) can be used to constrain the
temperature and moisture characteristics of the atmosphere.
Atmos. Physics II
Example of AMSU Temperature Application:
Temperature Anomalies for Hurricane Bonnie
Temperatures are estimated
based on Advanced
Microwave Sounding Unit
(AMSU) observations.
First flown on the NOAA
15 satellite launched 13
May 1998
AMSU is a 20-channel
instrument designed to
make temperature and
moisture soundings
through clouds.
Geophysical parameters
such as rain rate, column-
integrated water vapor and
column-integrated cloud
liquid water can also be
retrieved.

Atmospheric Transmission

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Atmospheric Transmission

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

http://campus.fsu.

For some applications it is very important to know the relative importance of

) is negative and proportional to the intensity (I

, where is the optical path

Use the approximation that for small x, e

& y-int = log(S

You might also like