Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2008
MIRZA D. KUSRINI
M. I. LUBIS
B. DARMAWAN
[The Tree Frog of Chevron Geothermal
Concession, Mount HalimunSalak
National Park Indonesia]
REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE WILDLIFE TRUSTPEKA FOUNDATION
Citation: Kusrini MD, Lubis MI, Darmawan B. 2008. The Tree Frog of Chevron Geothermal
Concession, Mount Hakimun-Salak National Park - Indonesia. Technical report submitted to the
Wildlife Truts – Peka Foundation
PHOTO CREDITS
Front cover: (top left) The Javanese tree frog Rhacophorus javanus, (top right) a female Philautus
vittiger guarding its eggs, (bottom) the green flying frog Rhacophorus reinwardtii
M. Irfansyah Lubis: Cover pictures, Fig2-5, fig2,7 to 2-11, Fig 3-1 top, Fig.3-4, Fig 3-4, Fig 3-7, Fig 3-8, Fig
3-0. (Stage 1, 16-18, 20, 21, 25, 42, 44, adult), Fig.3-11 and Fig 3-12 , Fig 3-13, Fig 3-15, Fig 3-16
B. Darmawan: Fig3-2, Fig.3-10. (Stage 13-15, 37,38,41,43,45,46)
K3AR-IPB:Fig. 3-1 below
Content
Acknowledgments v
Executive Summary v
Chapter 1. Introduction 1
Chapter 2. The tree frog of CGI Concession 4
Introduction 4
Methods 4
Results 4
Species Review 10
Discussions 13
Literature cited 15
Chapter 3. Breeding ecology of Pgilautus vittiger (Anura:Rhacophoridae) from 17
CGI – Mount Halimun Salak National Park, West Java, Indonesia
Introduction 17
Methods 18
Animal descriptions 18
Survey & Breeding Ecology 19
Results 21
I. Habitat 21
II. Breeding Ecology 23
2.1 Breeding Season 23
2.2 Eggs 24
2.3 Embryonic Development 24
2.4 Descriptions of tadpole 27
2.5 Breeding Behavior 29
2.6 Advertisement Calls 29
2.7 Parental Care 31
Discussions 31
Literature cited 33
Appendix 36
Chapter 4. Conclusions and Recommendations 38
i
List of Figures
Fig 1-1 Mean monthly rainfall (mm) of Parakan Salak weather station, based from 2
2005 to 2007 data
Fig 1-2 Map of survey area at Chevron Geothermal Concession-Mount Halimun-Salak 3
National Park
Fig 2-1 Tree Frog Distribution Map in Chevron Geothermal Indonesia, Mount Halimun-
6
Salak National Park
Fig 2-2 (a) Undisturbed forest (near awi 10), (b) Disturbed forest (near Powerplant 7
123)
Fig 2-3 (a) Terrestrial habitat near awi 14, (b) terrestrial habitat near awi 4 8
Fig 2-4 Percentage of mature Tree Frog found in Terrestrial habitat in CGI Concession 8
(N = 46 frogs)
Fig 2-5 (a) Natural pond near awi 4 and (b) Semi natural pond near awi 7 9
Fig 2-6 Percentage of Tree Frog in Pond habitat in CGI Concession (N= 104 frogs) 9
Fig 2-12 The distribution of tree frog in three types of habitat at Chevron Geothermal 14
Indonesia Concession Area
Fig 3-1 A variety of Philautus vittiger coloring. Picture below shows the underside (left) 18
and distinct shape of disc, webbed toes, tympanum (right)
Fig 3-2 (a) plastic box for tadpoles rearing and (b) a close up view of tadpoles inside 20
the box
Fig 3-3 Body morphology of a tadpole (based from Dodd,Jr 2004) 20
Fig 3-4 The habitat of Philautus vittiger at CGI concession (a) Natural pond, (b) Semi
21
natural pond and (c) artificial pond
Fig 3-5 A male Philautus vittiger perching under a leaf (a) and a coiled old leaf of Musa
22
acuminate (b) with a clutch of eggs inside (c)
Fig 3-6 Number of Egg clutches observed at CGI ponds from April to September 2008 23
Fig 3-7 A female Philautus vittiger with visible ripe ova (a) and unripe ova in her
23
stomach (b)
Fig. 3-9 Number of Philautus vittiger embryo survived as larvae from lab experiment 25
ii
Fig 3-10 Development of newly fertilized eggs of Philautus vittiger into a fully 26
metamorphose frog.
Fig 3-11 The characteristic of Philautus vittiger tadpole 27
Fig 3-13 Breeding sequence of Philautus vittiger. Fig. 3-14a was taken in the natural
habitat while the other figures showed mating sequence inside field terrarium.
Non calling male have darker coloring than the other frogs. Figure 3-13.f also 30
shows the other female (non-breeding – color pale cream) resting in the same
leaf
Fig 3-14 (a) An oscilogram of the entire section showing one call group, (b) an
oscillogram of the call section showing a single pulsed call from the call group
in green bracket in (a), (c) Spectrogram of the pulsed call shown in (b), (d)
30
Power spectrum generated over the peak of the call shown in (b). Un-
vouchered male. Record was taken 31 May 2008 at pond-5 at 09.34pm. Air
temperature 20oC
Fig 3-15 Two different females Philautus vittiger from pond-1 in 28 May 2008 guarding
its eggs (a) a female sitting on top of its eggs and (b) a different female wiping 31
her hind feet on top of its eggs
Fig 3-16 Unguarded dead eggs found during survey. (a) A clucth of eggs hanging by a
thread where leaf was eaten by caterpillar, (b) eggs attacked by ants, (c & d)
two different clucthes attacked by fungus 31
List of Tables
Table 2-1 Number of mature individual of each species found in each transect survey 5
Table 3-1 Various size of P. vittiger from Pengalengan (Iskandar 1998), Mount
Halimun (Kurniati 2003) and CGI Concession Mount Salak (Kusrini et al this 18
report)
iii
List of Appendix
Appendix-4 Development of Philautus vittiger embryos raised in lab. Eggs including the
leaf where it hangs were taken in 29 August 2009 from the field. The embryo 37
inside eggs were already in stage 23-24
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work is made possible from funding from Chevron Corporation to the Wildlife Trust
in partnership with Peka Foundation Indonesia. We thank the management of Chevron
Geothermal Indonesia for access and assistance during field works. We thank
Damayanti Buchori, Shinta Puspitasari, Bandung Sahari, Wika, Heri Tabadepu, and
Iyus, from Peka Foundation for advice and assistance in the field. We are grateful for the
assistant of Mr. Ucup, Mr. Jejen and family who had shared their house with us every
month. Dede Hendra Setiawan, Asyrafi, Nur Ikhwan, Akmal, Arif Tajali, Beny Aladin and
Neneng Sholihat had volunteered their time in the field, thank you. We also appreciate
advices and insights given by Jodi Rowley during the preparation of this report.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The forest surrounding the Chevron Geothermal Indonesia (CGI) Mount Halimun-
Salak National Park concession offers a unique opportunity to study the distribution and
natural history of tree frog, especially to understand how habitat within a geothermal
concession might still able to sustain tree frog diversity. As part of the broad project of
tree frog conservation in Indonesia, our first year aims are to map the distribution of tree
frog within the CGI concessions and the surrounding corridor area to increase our
understanding of the role of habitat for the conservation of this species and to study the
breeding ecology of Philautus vittiger.
Six species of tree frog (Rhacophoridae) is found in CGI concessions, consisted
of one new record for West Java, which is Polypedates otilophus. Other tree frog species
found are Rhacophorus reinwardtii, Rhacophorus javanus, Philautus aurifasciatus,
Philautus vittiger, Polypedates leucomystax.
The primary habitat for Philautus vittiger is permanent pond. Result from this
research shows that the development of artificial and semi-artificial ponds by the CGI
managements has benefit the frogs by providing suitable breeding habitat for this
species. Males were found calling in all observed locations during the six month
observation periods. Females attending breeding sites were either taking care of the
clutch or ready to breed. Mean number of eggs in one clutch is 52 (n = 12; range: 37 –
66 eggs, SD= 8.25). Eggs are un-pigmented, pale yellow in color and coated by sticky
jelly substance. The diameter of egg is 3.98 mm (stage 11) to 4.96 (stage 21). Fertilized
eggs will hatched after about 16 days. Tadpoles will emerge as stage 25 and slide to
water below the leaves . Tadpoles will stay in stage 25 for quite some time (48 days the
fastest), growing its body before moving to the next stage. After about 2 months tadpole
will be in stage 26-36 where hind limb develop. In the next 20 days, front limb will
emerge. It takes about 3 months for an egg to be a fully metamorphosed frog. We also
described for the first time the tadpole, breeding behavior, parental care and frog call of
this species. The result of this survey reveals that Philautus vittiger have a free tadpole
stage, contrary to the characteristic of the genus. Therefore, in our opinion, there is a
need to review the taxonomy of this species and exclude this species from Philautus
genus.
v
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is home to at least 376 species of amphibians (IUCN 2007), where 102
species are tree frogs from the family Rhacophoridae and Hylidae. About a third of this
tree frog species is Data Deficient, 1 species are Critically Endangered, 3 species
Endangered, 9 species are Vulnerable and 12 species are Near Threatened. Almost all
tree frog species are attractive and depended on the occurrence of forest vegetation. At
least 40 species of frogs of Indonesia are on the list for export in live form (for pet) or in
skin form (for leather product), out f which 14 species are tree frog (Ministry of Forestry
2007). The habitat and their population are thus potentially vulnerable to human
pressure. The overall aim of this project is to collect baseline data on the bio-ecology
and habitat of the tree frog to assess population status and management, which is
lacking. As the first phase, we will start with the Javanese tree frog, focusing on the
endemic frog, Rhacophorus javanus (VU), Philautus vittiger (DD), P. jacobsoni (CR) and
Nyctixalus margaritifer (VU).
Report on the population status of tree frog species, even for most amphibian in
Indonesia is scarce, mostly because lack of monitoring effort. The forest surrounding the
Chevron Geothermal Indonesia (CGI) Mount Halimun-Salak National Park concession
offers a unique opportunity to study the distribution and natural history of tree frog,
especially to understand how habitat within a geothermal concession might still able to
sustain tree frog diversity. As part of the broad project of tree frog conservation in
Indonesia, our first year aims are to map the distribution of tree frog within the CGI
concessions and the surrounding corridor area to increase our understanding of the role
of habitat for the conservation of this species and to study the breeding ecology of
Philautus vittiger.
Study site
The study area, Chevron Geothermal Indonesia concession is located at elevation of
950 – 1050 m asl (S 06°44.471′ E 106°38.453′; Fig.1-2). Most of the forested area
consisted of Schima wallichii, Quercus lineate, Altingia excels and shrubs such as
Cyathea sp. and Pandanus sp (PPLH IPB 2006). The area constantly receives rainfall
every month (Fig.1-1), resulting of almost all year round of permanent stream and ponds,
thus an ideal habitat for amphibian species. Monthly rainfall statistics were obtained for
the period of 2005 to 2007 for the Parakan Salak weather station (Bureau of
Meteorology). This is the closest station with a complete rainfall data set to the site
where survey was carried out (approx. 20 km distance).
1
Page
Fig.1-1. Mean monthly rainfall (mm) of Parakan Salak weather station, based from 2005
to 2007 data
Survey Methods
Distribution survey was conducted by 4-5 persons for 4 nights in a row each month from
April to June 2008. Comprehensive night survey was carried out in streams, ponds and
terrestrial habitat within concession area, mostly near the gas checking point (coded as
AWI Bengkok or Awi for short). A 400 m transect survey was conducted in 5 streams.
We visited 12 ponds around the area consisting of one artificial pond and five semi
artificial ponds and six natural ponds. A total of 77 hours of time-search was conducted
in 11 terrestrial habitats mostly in forest near the graveled path used by the workers to
check on the gas pipe and also in tea plantation that surround the area. If possible, we
measured the snout-vent length (SVL) of males and females to the nearest 0.1 mm with
calipers and weigh body mass to the nearest 0.5 g with Pesola mechanic balance.
2
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6
8
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5
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Awi 9
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River
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Awi 13
Awi 9 Awi 11 ÿ
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Legend Awi 2
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WEST JAVA CGI
500 0 500 1000 Meters
6
8
2
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0
0
6
8
5
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3
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Chapter 2
THE TREE FROG OF CGI CONCESSION
Introduction
The tree frogs are probably one of the attractive frog species compared to others. Most
of the species are forest dependent, thus making tree frog an ideal animal as indicator of
healthy forest. The Chevron Geothermal Indonesia concession (S 06°44.471′ - .559′ E
106°38.453′ - .882′ - 951 – 1039 asl) known previously as Unocal Geothermal Indonesia
is located between Mount Salak and Halimun, West Java.
The forest surrounding the CGI concession offers a unique opportunity to study the
distribution and natural history of tree frog, especially to understand how habitat within a
geothermal concession might still able to sustain tree frog diversity. As part of this
proposal, our first year aims are to map the distribution of tree frog within the CGI
concessions and the surrounding corridor area to increase our understanding of the role
of habitat for the conservation of this species
Methods
The CGI concesssion area and the surrounding concession area were surveyed
to map the current distribution of treefrog. Survey was carried out for three months from
April to June 2008. Seven permanent stream ranges from 300-500 m length were
selected randomly from different elevation and habitat type (disturbed and non disturbed
forest). Three streams are located near disturbed forest (mostly near buildings: one
located near the power plant 123 Pertamina, one located on the border of tea plantation,
and the last one located near the main office building) and four streams in non disturbed
forests. Surveys in ponds were conducted in 12 locations, consisting of natural ponds,
semi natural ponds and one artificial pond. Survey in terrestrial area was carried out in
14 transect of 500 to 1000 m length near awi. Transects encompassed the yards of awi
facilities and office buildings, small path inside forests, roadside of the asphalt street.
Each month we conducted a week-long survey within the designated area using Visual
Encounter Survey method (Heyer et al 1994). A combination of methods were carried
out during frog surveys: nocturnal survey, daytime survey, and tadpole survey. Presence
and absence data of treefrog are derived from frog surveys. An area will have present
status of a species if one tadpole or juvenile/adult of this species are found in the area.
For each frog found, we recorded the site with GPS for further mapping. For more
detailed information, see Survey Methods section in chapter 1.
Results
In total, 20 species of anuran is found in this area consisting of Bufonidae (Bufo asper,
Leptophryne borbonica), Megophryidae (Megophrys montana, Leptobrachium hasselti ),
4
Mature tree frogs inhabit three main habitats: permanent streams, permanent ponds and
terrestrial habitats. All tadpoles (except for P. aurifasciatus) were found in aquatic
habitats: ponds, streams, roadside ditches and ephemeral pools.
Table 2-1 Number of mature individual of each species found in each transect survey
Habitat No Rr Rj Pa Pv Pl Po Total
Terrestrial 1 10 0 0 0 2 0 12
Terrestrial 2 3 2 1 0 1 0 7
Terrestrial 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Terrestrial 4 1 0 0 0 2 0 3
Terrestrial 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Terrestrial 6 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Terrestrial 8 6 0 0 0 2 0 8
Terrestrial 9 3 0 0 0 1 0 4
Terrestrial 10 2 1 0 0 1 0 4
Terrestrial 11 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Terrestrial 12 1 1 0 0 0 0 2
Terrestrial 13 0 0 1 0 0 1 2
Terrestrial 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Stream 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Stream 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Stream 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Stream 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Stream 5 0 10 0 0 0 0 10
Stream 6 0 18 0 0 0 0 18
Stream 7 0 7 1 0 0 0 8
Pond 1 1 1 0 13 0 0 15
Pond 2 6 0 0 0 3 0 9
Pond 3 5 15 1 6 0 0 27
Pond 4 0 12 0 2 0 0 14
Pond 5 0 2 0 11 2 0 15
Pond 6 0 0 0 3 0 0 3
Pond 7 0 3 0 1 0 0 4
Pond 8 1 1 1 1 0 0 4
Pond 9 0 2 0 2 0 0 4
Pond 10 1 0 0 1 0 0 2
Pond 11 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Pond 12 2 0 0 4 0 0 6
Total 44 76 6 45 14 1 186
Notes: Rr : Rhacophorus reinwardtii, Rj: Rhacophorus javanus, Pa: Philautus
aurifasciatus, Pv: Philautus vittiger, Pl: Polypedates leucomystax, Po: Polypedates
otilophus
5
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Figure 2-1.Tree Frog Distribution Map in Chevron Geothermal Indonesia, Mount Halimun-Salak National Park
Permanent Stream
Only two species of tree frogs were found in permanent streams: R. javanus and P.
aurifasciatus. Frogs were found both in disturbed and undisturbed habitat. Rhacophorus
javanus is a species that can be found in primary forest or open forest area near slow-
moving waters (Kurniati 2003).
(a) (b)
Figure 2-2 (a) Undisturbed forest (near awi 10), (b) Disturbed forest (near Powerplant 123)
Terrestrial Habitat
Fig.2-3 (a) Terrestrial habitat near awi 14, (b) terrestrial habitat near awi 4
The number and distribution of tree frog differs for each species. The highest
number of tree frog found in terrestrial habitat is R. reinwardtii. Rhacophorus reinwardtii
is a common species in primary or secondary forests and distributed widely from 250 –
12000 m above sea level (Iskandar 1998). The only tree frog not found in terrestrial
habitat is P. vittiger, which is a pond specialist. Fig.2-4 shows the percentage of tree
frogs found in terrestrial habitats.
Fig. 2-4 Percentage of mature Tree Frog found in Terrestrial habitat in CGI Concession (N = 46
frogs)
Permanent Ponds
Frogs found in pond or other lentic habitats are mostly species having characteristic of
tadpoles suited to still or slow moving waters such as R. reinwardtii, R. javanus, dan P.
leucomystax, where as for Philautus usually have a direct development mode (Iskandar
1998). Thus Philautus are rarely seen in aquatic habitats, mostly seen deep inside forest
far from water source. However, this characteristic is not effective with Philautus vittiger.
8
Fig.2-5. (a) Natural pond near awi 4 and (b) Semi natural pond near awi 7
Fig. 2-6 Percentage of Tree Frog in Pond habitat in CGI Concession (N= 104 frogs) 9
Page
Species Review
Rhacophorus reinwardtii
A pretty and colorful tree frog. Upper side of body leaf green, flank orange, ventral side
of body yellowish orange. All except first finger has extensive dark blue web reaching
discs. It has rounded snout and distinct tympanum.
Distribution: Distributed widely from South China to Malaysia, Sumatra, Kalimantan and
Java (Iskandar, 1998). In West Java it is found in Mount Gede Pangrango National park
(Bodogol, Cibodas, Telaga Biru) (Kusrini 2007), Mount Halimun, forested area of perum
perhutani (Kusrini & Fitri 2006) and even in small patch of forested area of IPB campus
in Darmaga Bogor (Yuliana et al 2005). In CGI found mostly on terrestrial habitat near
disturbed area such as near office building or other facilities. Several are found in ponds
or ephemeral pool. In CGI this is the second most abundant frogs (44 mature
individuals). It is found in most awi, even in tea plantation in the border of CGI.
Conservation Status: Least Concern (IUCN 2007)
Bio-ecology: Males are significantly smaller than females (Liem 1971, Berry 1975, Inger
&Stuebing 1997, Iskandar 1998, Yazid 2006). Males SVL 45-66 mm, females SVL 55-80
mm. Breeds all year, however population that live near ephemeral ponds that depends
on heavy rainfall have a tendency to
breed seasonally (Yazid 2006). No
report on number of eggs, however our
observation found 111 eggs in one foam
and dissection of one female specimen
from other area found 209 unfertilized
eggs inside (Kusrini, unpublished data).
Fertilized eggs are inside foam nest.
Nests are usually put on leaf
overhanging still waters or in leaf litter in
areas higher than ephemeral pools
(Yazid 2006)
Threats: In Indonesia, this species is
collected for international pet trade.
Quota for this species is relatively low,
for instance harvest quota for 2007 was
4,500 and taken from Java (Dephut 2007). Fig.2-7. Rhacophorus reinwardtii
Philautus aurifasciatus
Small-sized tree frog with a dull pointed snout. Tips of digits with flattened discs. Color
greenish to brownish. Sometimes have a H or X marking in the back.
Distribution: This species occurs above 900 m asl on Java and Sumatra in Indonesia
(IUCN 2007). In Mount Halimun it lives among shrubs in mossy forest, and usually found
on the leaf about one meters above the ground (Kurniati 2003). In CGI the calls is often
heard deep in the forest. It is found in trees
near stream, forest habitat and ponds. Only
six individual were seen during survey.
Conservation status: Least Concern (IUCN
2007)
Bio-ecology: No report on the number of
eggs. Personal observation found 11 eggs in
one clutch in Telaga Warna (Ul-Hasanah,
unpublished data). The generic name of
Philautus comes from this species. There is
no tadpole stage, embryo is direct
development.
Threats: Mostly found in forested area, thus
vulnerable to change of habitat. In Indonesia,
this species is collected for international pet
trade. Quota for this species is relatively low, for
instance harvest quota for 2007 was 675 Fig.2-9. Philautus aurifasciatus
(Dephut 2007).
11
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Philautus vittiger
A small stout tree frog with snout truncate but not projecting. Fingers and toes dilated
into discs. Fingers with rudimentary webbing. It is an endemic frog from west java.
Distribution: Found in Mount Halimun
(Kusriniati 2003) and Pengalengan
(Iskandar 1998). In CGI is found in shrubs
restricted in ponds near or inside forest.
This is the most abundant tree frogs in
pond habitats.
Conservation status: Data Deficient (IUCN
2007)
Bio-ecology: Males are larger than females.
The frogs seem to breed all year round.
Eggs are laid as jellied clumps in leaves
overhanging permanent water-bodies. See
chapter 3 for more detailed breeding
ecology.
Threats: It seems restricted to high elevation
sites, in vegetated ponds within forest or near Fig.2-10. Philautus vittiger
forested. Habitats are in risk to modification.
Polypedates leucomystax
Large sized tree frog with colour brownish or
yellowish green. Males are smaller than females, with
stripes from head to the end of body or without
stripes but with scattered darker spots. End of digits
are flatly enlarged. Not quite fully webbed in the toes,
but half webbed in fingers.
Distribution: Distributed widely from India, South
China, Japan, Phillipines and Indonesia. In Indonesia
it is found in most islands, including Nusa Tenggara
and Papua (intro). Abundant in villages’ garden
(Iskandar 1998; IUCN 2007). In CGI its foam nest is
found in ponds in the vicinity of buildings near AWI. Fig.2-11. Polypedates leucomystax
Rarely seen in ponds inside forested area.
Conservation status: Least Concern (IUCN 2007)
Bio-ecology:
Males are smaller than females, up to 50 mm in males, 70 mm snout-vent length in
females. Clutch can reach as many as 900 eggs (Alcala 1962, Leong & Chou 1999).
Although mean embryonic and larval survival might be low (2% - Yorke 1983), the frogs
thrive in human modified landscape by utilizing ditches or garden’s vegetation as retreat
sites during the day (Sholihat 2007). As of R. reinwardtii, fertilized eggs are put in foam
nest. Foam nest might be attached in artificial ponds’ walls or in leaf overhanging
permanent or temporary water bodies (Irawan 2008). It breeds all year round. Call analysis
of this species is available from Bali (Marquez & Eekhout 2006)
Threats:
12
In Indonesia, this species is collected for international pet trade. Quota for this species is
relatively low, for instance harvest quota for 2007 was 13,500 (Dephut 2007).
Page
Polypedates otilopus
Compared to P. leucomystax, this is a larger sized
frog. In life the color is brown with dorsal hour-glass
mark. Hells have small tubercle. The base of jaw
with sharp bony processes and bony crest
projecting above tympanum. Limbs have dark
crossbars.
Distribution: Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and
Malaysia) and on Sumatra. However, recent report
suggested that this frog is also found in central
Java (Awal, unpublished report). In CGI a dead
male was found during survey in terrestrial area, in
roadside.
Conservation status: Least Concern (IUCN 2007) Fig.2-12. Polypedates otilophus
Bio-ecology: males range from 64-80 mm and females
from 82-97 mm (Inger and Stuebing 1997). In
Kalimantan, it is usually found on vegetation near pools and breeding season is
presumably during April thorugh May (Inger 1966). Eggs are put in foam nest where
hatching tadpole will drop into water (Inger and Stuebing 1997). There is no data on the
number of eggs. Adults feed insects and spiders (Malkmus 2002), especially large tree
crickets (Inger and Stuebing 1997).
Threats:
In Indonesia, this species is collected for international pet trade. Quota for this species is
relatively low, for instance harvest quota for 2007 was 1,350
DISCUSSIONS
Compared to Sumatra or Kalimantan, the amphibian species of Java is less diverse with
only 36 species of amphibian (Iskandar 1998). The finding of 20 species of amphibian in
CGI concession, including one new record showed that the forested area of CGI
concession is still able to sustain this diverse species. The finding in 2008 survey is
higher compared to result of previous survey. An one-day survey in the Cisaketi Stream
in 2002 found 5 species of frogs (Kusrini, unpublished data), while a six day aquatic and
terestrial survey in 2006 (total 14 hours of search effort) reported 10 species occurring
in CGI concession area (Kusrini and Fitri 2006). Differences in result are most probably
due to higher search effort in this survey (77 hours of search effort) which encompassed
six month of repeated survey. It is interesting that we were able to record Polypedates
otilophus which for years have escaped the scrutiny of noted herpetologist who worked
with Indonesian species such as van Kampen (1923) and Iskandar (1998). The finding of
this species coincidentally occurs almost the same time with the finding of the same
species in Mount Slamet, Central Java (Awal, unpublished data). With higher effort of
survey in Java, it is thus possible to found other species unrecorded previously or
presumed extinct.
In general, the tree frogs need both aquatic and terrestrial habitat for their live hood.
13
Except for P. aurifasciatus which do not have aquatic stage during their development, all
of the other tree frog species in CGI needs water bodies for their tadpole stage.
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40
30
20
10
0
Terrestrial Stream Pond
14
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The most diverse community of tree frog was found in pond habitats. Conservation effort
thus should focus on maintaining the pond habitats. Philautus vittiger are well suited to
monitoring pond habitats as they restricted themselves in ponds to breed, and males
congregate to call at night from vegetation at the water edge. Ponds can be easily
surveyed at night, either by listening for chorus activity (to record presence/absence), or
by counting individuals along transect at the perimeter of the pond. This type of
nocturnal monitoring could also be extended to include two other common species that
frequently encountered at the pond perimeter: R. reinwardtii and R. javanus.
LITERATURE CITED
Alcala, A. C. 1962. Breeding behaviour and early development of frogs of Negros,
Philippine islands. Copeia 1962(4): 679 - 726.
Berry, P. Y. 1975. The amphibian fauna of peninsular Malaysia. Tropical Press. Kuala
Lumpur127. pp.
[Dephut] Departemen Kehutanan Republik Indonesia. 2007. Surat keputusan direktur
jenderal PHKA nomor : SK 33/iv-KKH/2007kuota pengambilan tumbuhan dan
penangkapan satwa liar yang tidak termasuk appendix cites untuk periode 2007:
61 pp.
Inger, R. F, and Stuebing, R. B. 1997. A Field Guide to the Frogs of Borneo. Natural
History Publications (Borneo) Limited, Kota Kinabalu.
Inger, R. F. (1966). ''The systematics and zoogeography of the Amphibia of Borneo.''
Fieldiana Zoology, 52, 1-402.
Irawan, F. 2008. Preferensi habitat berbiak katak pohon bergaris (Polypedates
leucomystax Gravenhorst 1829) di kampus ipb dramaga bogor. Skripsi.
Departemen Konservasi Sumberdaya Hutan dan Ekowisata, Fakultas
Kehutanan, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor.
Iskandar DT. 1998. Amfibi Jawa dan Bali – Seri Panduan Lapangan. Puslitbang – LIPI.
Bogor.
IUCN 2007. 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Accessed at
<www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 14 July 2008.
Kurniati H. 2003. Amphibians and Reptile of Gunung Halimun National Park West Java,
Indonesia (Frog, Lizard and Snake). Cibinong : Puslitbang Biologi LIPI.
Kusrini, M. D. 2007. Frogs of Gede Pangrango: A follow up project for the conservation
of frogs in west java indonesia. Book 1: Main report. Technical report submitted
to the BP conservation programme. Bogor, Institut Pertanian Bogor: 71.
Kusrini, M. D., M. I. Lubis and B. Darmawan. 2008. Ecology and conservation of treefrog
of west java, Indonesia. Technical report submitted to Sea World/ Busch Garden
15
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Chapter 3
INTRODUCTION
Philautus vittiger or the wine colored tree frog was first described by Boulenger in 1897
as Ixalus vittiger based from specimen from Mount Pengalengan, West Java province,
Indonesia (Bossuyt and Dubois 2001; Iskandar 1998). Although described more than
100 years ago, the population and bio-ecology of this small tree frog species has never
been studied thoroughly and the frog has been listed as Data Deficient (IUCN 2007). To
date, several populations of P. vittiger has been identified in West Java, which consist of
Situ Lembang and Mount Burangrang (Iskandar 1998), Mount Halimun (Kurniati 2003)
and Mount Salak (Kusrini and Fitri 2006). There is no detailed habitat description of this
species, however from previous report it is known that it inhabits high elevation locations
(more than 900 m above sea level) and mostly found near ponds or stagnant waters
(Kurniati 2003; Kusrini & Fitri 2006).
Mount Salak (latitude 6.72°S – 6°43’0”S, Longitude 106.73°E – 106°44’0”E) with the
highest level of 2211 m, is one of remaining pristine habitat in West Java. Although less
known compare to other mountain in West Java such as Gede-Pangrango, the area,
which harbors various waterfalls and diverse ecosystems is popular with local hikers.
The forest of Mount Salak was managed by Perum perhutani, a state owned forest
production management. In 2003, Mount Salak was incorporated into the management
of Mount Halimun National Park under the Ministry of Forestry decree Number 175/Kpts-
II/2003. The decree had changed the name of Mount Halimun National Park into Taman
Nasional Gunung Halimun Salak (TNGHS - Mount Halimun-Salak National Park) and
broadens the initial Mount Halimun NP from 40,000 ha to 113,357 ha. A small part of the
TNGHS is operated by Chevron Geothermal Indonesia (CGI). Located in Mount Salak
adjacent to corridor to Mount Halimun, CGI has maintained most of the natural forest in
its concession. In 2006 amphibian survey was conducted in the area, mostly in the
graveled path used by the workers to check on the gas pipe in several blocks. Two
individuals of P. vittiger were found in one of the pond inside this area (Kusrini and Fitri
2006). Since the forest surrounding the CGI concession offers a unique opportunity to
study the distribution and natural history of tree frog, we conducted additional survey
starting in April 2008 to study the ecology of Philautus vittiger. Here we describe habitat
requirements of P. vittiger, breeding behavior and other aspect of its reproductive
biology.
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METHODS
Animal descriptions
A small sized frog (mass ± 1.22 grams) where males are slightly larger than females
(t35=6.959, P < 0.001). Mature male 24.8-30.2 mm SVL (n=18, mean + SD = 27.26 +
1.34 mm) and mature female 21.6-26.5 mm SVL (n=17; mean + SD = 24.05 + 1.39 mm).
Table 3-1 shows different size of P. vittiger in three locations. Tympanum presents, skin
smooth without supratympanic fold. Snout shorts and a bit pointed. A dark stripe occurs
from eyes to the groin, mostly distinct until fore limb. Color in life varied. Dorsum pale
yellow cream with a see-through quality (usually during night) sometimes with brown
spots or brown bars or even totally brown. Color might change rapidly within hours, from
yellow cream to yellow-brown. In the light version, fore and hind limb usually pale pink
whilst the brown version usually has yellow fore and hind limb with brown bar or dark
spots all over the limb. Throat to belly is white in color with the middle part to groin
pinkish. Toes and fingers distinctive enlarged into flattened disc (Fig.3-1). Fingers
webbed a little in the base, toes are 2/3 webbed.
Fig.3-1. A variety of Philautus vittiger coloring. Picture below shows the underside (left) and
distinct shape of disc, webbed toes, tympanum (right).
Table 3-1. Various size of P. vittiger from Pengalengan (Iskandar 1998), Mount Halimun (Kurniati
2003) and CGI Concession Mount Salak (Kusrini et al this report)
SVL adult (mm) Iskandar 1998 Kurniati 2003 Kusrini et al 2008 (this report)
Male 24 24.8-30.2 mm
25-30
18
See Survey Methods in chapter-1 for distribution survey. Breeding observations were
carried out from April to September 2008. We visited the breeding habitat of P. vittiger at
least once a day for 3 nights and searched for newly-laid eggs. When we found such
egg-masses, we recorded habitat characteristics such as heights of egg-masses
positions (measured from the surface of the pond to their lower margin to the nearest 0.1
m), air and water temperature, type of water body (standing water or moving waters),
type of leaves (small type leaf, big size leaves), and vegetation structure (shrubs, liana
and trees). We define shrub as any woody vegetation or a woody plant having multiple
stems and bearing foliage from the ground up. Trees are any woody plant, normally
having one stem or trunk bearing its foliage or crown well above ground level to heights
of 5 meters or more. A liana is a woody climber that starts at ground level, and uses
trees to climb up to the canopy.
We count the number of egg in one clutch by counting number of eggs from image or in
case of eggs rearing lab by checking the number that hatch and failed. We then noted
their stage of development following Gosner (1960) and mortality, if any.
Each clutch’s location in the field was noted and revisited each subsequent month until
September 2008. We noted the number of egg-masses present and assessed changes
in egg mass development found in previous month. In total, we observed the
development of four clutches in the field for a total of 10 days.
The development of three clutches of eggs plus 14 tadpoles (stage 24 to 42) was
observed in the Wildlife Ecology lab at the Faculty of Forestry in Bogor. The tadpoles
were captured from pond- 1 and brought in to the lab on 03 June. The first clutch of eggs
observed was the result of a mating of a pair of frogs that was brought back to the lab. In
29 August 2008, a pair of P. vittiger (females already gravid – eggs are visible inside the
stomach) were captured and placed into a plastic bag (30 × 40 cm) together with a
branch and leaves and brought into lab. In lab, the pair was put inside pet house
(21x14x14 cm) in which 9 days later a clutch of eggs emerge.
The second clutch was taken from pond-1. In 29 August 2008 we carefully removed one
clutch (embryonic stage 21) and placed it inside plastic buckets (210 l in volume), filled
with pond water and brought to the lab for monitoring until emergence of hatchlings. The
nest was placed inside a plastic box (28 x 22 x 16 cm) above the water surface on
branches and leaves collected from the study site. We put bits of mud and leaf litter from
its original habitat and added aquatic plants (Hydrila spp.) (Fig.3-2).
In addition, one clutch consisted of 67 eggs were taken in 25 September 2008 from a
pair that mate in artificial terrarium in the field-lab and reared in aquarium. Lab
temperature range 24-25oC.
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(a) (b)
Fig.3-2. (a) plastic box for tadpoles rearing and (b) a close up view of tadpoles inside the box
completed with aquatic plants. A quarter of box is filled with water. Two males (SVL 27.9
mm and 28.4 mm) and three females (SVL 21.6 mm, 24.4 mm and 24.3 mm) were taken
at 23rd of September 2008 from two locations (a pair were taken from pond-3 and the
rest were taken from pond-4). All females showed visible ova, although only one showed
mature ova (big-yellowish color). One female escape after 6 hours in captivity, thus
observations were made only for the remaining 4 frogs. Observations were conducted
for 3 days in a row. Afterwards frogs were released back to its original habitat.
Calls were recorded whenever possible using a digital recorder Edirol by Roland type R-
09 with built-in microphone. A call by male on pond-5 taken at 31 May 2008 at 21.34
with air temperatures ranging from 19o-20oC was analyzed using Sound Ruler Acoustic
Analysis version 0.9.6.0 (Gridi-Papp 2007). Other males nearby were also calling.
RESULTS
I. HABITAT
No Philautus vittiger were found in streams or terrestrial habitat. The habitat of
this frog is restricted in vegetation surrounding ponds (Fig.3-4). From 12 ponds that we
visited, only one pond located near the tea plantation was absent. The wine colored
frogs were mostly found in vegetation, either in natural (5), semi natural (5) or artificial
pond (1). Most of the natural ponds have depth less than 1 m. The semi natural ponds
were originated from slow moving stream impounded by the CGI management, depth
around 2-3 m, in which in several parts were cemented. Tree frogs were also found in an
artificial pond made from cement depth around 3 m (Table 3-2). All of the ponds except
the one in tea plantation (pond-2) have similarity in which it is surrounded by dense
vegetation, mostly shrubs with broad type leaves or epiphytes that inhabit moist and wet
soils. Table 3-3 shows the type of vegetation used as perching site.
Fig.3-4. The habitat of Philautus vittiger at CGI concession (a) Natural pond, (b) Semi natural pond and (c)
artificial pond
Frogs were mostly found at night. Males usually perched under the leaves very
near the edge of water up to 3 m above water (Fig.3-5a). Females were usually seen
near the males. Leaves are not only used for perching, but to put egg clutch. All clutches
were put either under the leaves or inside coiled leaves, directly above the water and
protected from sun (Fig.3-5b and c). Clutches were found in the leaves of Impatiens
platypetala, Eupatorium pallescen, Musa acuminata, Mikania cordata and Asplenium
nidus.
21
Water temperatures in ponds ranged from 18.1-26°C with pH of 5.5 – 7.0. Air
temperatures ranged from 17.5 - 26°C and relatively moist, ranging from 62 to 98%. The
Page
substrates of ponds were mostly consisted of decomposed leaves, most probably rich in
food sources for tadpoles that inhabit the ponds, including the tadpole of P. vittiger.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig.3-5. A male Philautus vittiger perching under a leaf (a) and a coiled old leaf of Musa acuminate (b) with a
clutch of eggs inside (c)
Other than P. vittiger, other species of frogs found near the ponds are Limnonectes
microdiscus, Limnonectes kuhlii, Fejervarya limnocharis, Rana chalconota, Rana
nicobarensis, Microhyla achatina, Microhyla palmipes, Polypedates leucomystax,
Rhacophorus reinwardtii, and Rhacophorus javanus. Several tadpoles were seen,
mostly from species such as Rana chalconota, Microhyla palmipes, Leptobrachium
hasseltii, and Rhacophorus javanus. In pond-1 several fishes were seen.
Table 3-2. Pond characteristics in Chevron Geothermal Indonesian Concession Mount Salak
Males were found calling in all observed locations during the six month observation
periods. Twenty six egg-clutch sites were found in five locations: pond-1, pond 3, pond
4, pond-6, where most of it (total 17 clutches, 3-4 clutch per month) were found mainly in
pond-1. Eggs were found in all months, however the number of eggs found in each
ponds were variable (Fig.3-6). For example in pond-1, during the six month period, no
clutch were found in September, however the highest number of clutch found was in May
(5 clutches).
Females attending breeding sites were either taking care of the clutch (no visible ova in
her stomach) or ready to breed, which showed by having visible ova in her stomach.
Ripe ova were usually large and yellowish in color, whilst unripe ova were usually
smaller size than ripe ova and greenish in color (Fig. 3-7).
Fig.3-6. Number of Egg clutches observed at CGI ponds from April to September 2008
23
(a) (b)
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Fig.3-7. A female Philautus vittiger with visible ripe ova (a) and unripe ova in her stomach (b)
2.2 Eggs
Number of eggs in one clutch is variable. Breeding female will lay all of her eggs,
clumped into a single clutch during amplexus (diameter of clutch 13.5 mm for stage 11 to
26.98 mm for stage 22). Mean number of eggs in one clutch is 52 (n = 12; range: 37 –
66 eggs, SD= 8.25). Eggs are un-pigmented, pale yellow in color and coated by sticky
jelly substance (see Fig.10). The diameter of egg is 3.98 mm (stage 11, N = 1) to 4.96
(stage 21, N=1). Height of nest position above the pond water ranged from 0.2 to 2.5 m
(n = 22, mean = 1.47 m, SD = 0.92 m).
Fertilized eggs will hatched after about 16 days. Tadpoles will emerge as stage 25 and
slide to water below the leaves (Fig.3-8). Tadpoles will stay in stage 25 for quite some
time (48 days the fastest), growing its body before moving to the next stage. After about
2 months tadpole will be in stage 26-36 where hind limb develop. In the next 20 days,
front limb will emerge. It takes about 3 months for an egg to be a fully metamorphosed
frog (Table 3-4, Fig.3-10).
25
Fig.3-9. Number of Philautus vittiger embryo survived as larvae from lab experiment.
Page
Stage 1 Stage 13-15 Stage 16-18
Fig.3-10. Development of newly fertilized eggs of Philautus vittiger into a fully metamorphose
frog.
2.4 Description of tadpole
In dorsal view, body oval, snout rounded. Eyes dorsal, directed laterally, not visible from
below. Nostril small, dorsolateral, positioned closer to the snout than to the eyes. The
internarial distance is about 50 % of the interorbital distance. The tail musculature is
strong, in the distal third of the tail the musculature is gradually tapering and almost
reaches the tail tip. Dorsal fin does not extend onto the body; a broader than ventral fin.
Dorsal fin expands after one third of tail length, where it becomes the point of maximum
fin height. Dorsal fin will gradually tapering in the last 1/3 of length. Spiracle is sinistral,
visible from above and below. Anus dextral. Tail length 1.4-2.0 times body length. Dorsal
surface of tadpole is transparent brown, head and body with plenty dark mottled but
becoming lightly to tail. Ventral surface are mostly transparent (see Fig. 3-11).
Mouth directed downwards with flattened throat. Oral disc medium, extending definitely
beyond the lower jaw. The upper (suprarostral) and lower (infrarostral) supportive jaw
cartilages have pigmented and keratinized jaw sheaths. The relative amount of dark
keratinization (width in longitudinal dimension) in the sheath is about half the width
(medium). Margin of oral disc is emarginate. Upper sheath with broad arch, lower sheath
V-shaped; margins of upper and lower jaw sheaths cuspate, rounded. Marginal papillae
have a dorsal gap. Size varied according to its Goner stage. At stage 25, the total length
of tadpoles range from 1.5-2.6 cm. In this stage, tadpole has labial teeth formula of I+4-
4/III or II+4-4/III (Fig.3-12). Morphometric measurements of eight Philautus vittiger
tadpole specimens from stage 21 to 46 are given in Table 3-5.
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Tabel 3-5. Morphometric measurement of eight Philautus vittiger tadpoles taken from
different ponds at CGI concession in Mount Halimun-Salak National Park. All
measurements are in mm.
No amplexus behavior was observed in the wild. Although no amplexus activity were
seen during field work, we have encountered 5 pair of frogs sitting closely near each
other, apparently in the middle on mating activity. Observation described here are based
on a pair of female and male in terrarium which amplexed in 25 September 2008. In
addition, a pair of frogs was in the same terrarium.
Courtship began a day before with a male choose the widest leaf which situated directly
on top of water and calling under the leaf at 22:00 and a female with visible ripe ova in
her belly advancing toward him (Fig.3-13a). Both male and female were then sitting near
to each other (3 cm apart) but no amplexus were seen. The male continuously called
until 5:00 and during the day both were seen resting close together until dusk in which
female moved around occasionally to water and leaf. At 18:30 the male started to call
again and continued calling until 01.00 whereupon the previous female advanced him
and check suitable location in the leaf to deposit her eggs and sat in the selected
location. At 01:10 calling male advanced toward a non-calling male however after 10
seconds left the male and approaching the female and shortly after engaged to axillary
amplexus (Fig. 3-13b&c). During amplexus male stopped calling.
A non calling male in the terrarium approached the amplexus pair in 01:29 during which
female laid her eggs. Adhesive, yellow colored eggs were laid for 26 minutes whilst both
males seemingly fertilized it (Fig.3-13d). After eggs were laid (01:55) the first male soon
departed the female, however the second (non calling) male stayed close until the next
32 minutes (Fig.3-13f). Female sat on her eggs for about 3 hours but intermittently leave.
On 03.03 the first male called from near the water (a third of his body submerged in
water) (Fig. 3-13g.) then the waiting female left her eggs did the same thing as the male.
At 04.11 the female left the water and back to the eggs (Fig.3-13h) whilst male
continuously calling until 5a.m. In the next 23 minutes, female were seen on top of the
eggs and rubbing her wet hind legs until 04.34 (Fig.3-13i). During the day, female rest
closely nears the eggs.
The advertisement call of the Philatus vittager recorded on 31 May 2008, 09.34 pm, air
temperature 19-20oC was composed of two notes, or clicks of approximately 0.026
second duration, spaced 0.658 seconds apart. The peak frequency of each note was
2.93 kHz (Figure 3-14). The calls were easily heard from a distance of more than 20 m.
29
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(a (b (c
) ) )
(d (e (f)
) )
(g (h (i)
) )
Fig. 3-13. Breeding sequence of Philautus vittiger. Fig. 3-14a was taken in the natural habitat while the other
figures showed mating sequence inside field terrarium. Non calling male have darker coloring than the other
frogs. Figure 3-13.f also shows the other female (non-breeding – color pale cream) resting in the same leaf.
Fig.3-14. (a) An oscilogram of the entire section showing one call group, (b) an oscillogram of the
call section showing a single pulsed call from the call group in green bracket in (a), (c)
Spectrogram of the pulsed call shown in (b), (d) Power spectrum generated over the peak of the
30
call shown in (b). Un-vouchered male. Record was taken 31 May 2008 at pond-5 at 09.34pm. Air
o
temperature 20 C
Page
2.7 Parental care
Parental care in the wild is obvious in this species. Most of the non-breeding females
were usually located near the eggs during the day although they are mostly non-
conspicuous. During night female will occasionally sat on top of its eggs and wiping her
hind legs (Fig.3-15). Of the total 17 eggs clutch, 10 clutches were guarded by a female.
A male usually sat nearby but never as close as the female. These males usually call
and when researchers walk near its location it will increases the tempo of the calls.
(a) (b)
Fig.3-15. Two different females Philautus vittiger from pond-1 in 28 May 2008 guarding its eggs (a) a
female sitting on top of its eggs and (b) a different female wiping her hind feet on top of its eggs
At least five out of seven clutches unguarded were attacked. Four clutches were
attacked by ants and fungal infestations (Fig.3-16b, c, d) in which the eggs either rot,
discolored or dried up. In one occasions, a clutch of eggs was finally left by the guarding
female because of caterpillar attacks. A newly laid clutch of eggs was found at 28 May
2008 in pond-1 at 19.30. The next day at 21.30 a female were seen guarding the eggs,
however on 3rd June 2008 the leaf where the eggs situated was eaten by caterpillar so
the eggs only hang in small thread and the mother is not seen nearby (Fig.3-17a). There
is a possibility that the eggs will survive since the embryos were already in stage 21.
DISCUSSIONS
Ponds are important for biodiversity conservation (Oertli et al 2002), especially for
31
amphibians since it provides potential breeding habitat for several species. The use of
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several type of ponds (artificial or temporary) frog breeding habitat has been studied by
many scientist, for instance by Hazell et al (2001) who studied the use of farm dams by
frogs and Griffiths (1997) who reviewed the use of temporary ponds by British species.
Result from this research shows that the development of artificial and semi-artificial
ponds by the CGI managements has benefit the wine colored frogs by providing suitable
breeding habitat for this species. However, it is clear from observation that one of the
main characteristic needed for pond to serve as breeding habitat is the availability of
emergent vegetation in the margin of aquatic and terrestrial zone as noted by Hazell et
al (2001) and DiMauro & Hunter (2002). These vegetations serve as oviposition site
where hatched eggs will be able to move straight into water below.
Compared to other species of tree frog found in Java, the oviposition site of P. vittiger
differs from Rhacophorus reinwardtii or Polypedates leucomystax which both have
eggs inside foam nest. Although R. reinwardtii oviposit in leaves as of P. vittiger,
however this frog also lays its foam nest in the ground (Yazid 2006) while P.
leucomystax oviposit in leaves or even in the walls of artificial ponds (Sholihat 2007).
Both R. reinwardtii and P. leucomystax also oviposit in temporary ponds (Yazid 2006,
Yorke 1983) compared to P. vittiger which only found in permanent ponds. The
selection of pond type (permanent vs. ephemeral) might refer to phenotypic plasticity of
tadpole to metamorphose during desiccation (Griffiths 1997).
Pond’s frog ecological research in Indonesian has been conducted for several species
such as Fejervarya cancrivora, F. limnocharis, R. chaconota, R. erythraea, Occidozyga
lima, and M. achatina which inhabits artificial ponds in Cibodas Botanical Garden in
West Java (Premo 1985, Mumpuni et al 1990, Erftemeijer & Boeadi 1991), mostly on its
diet and reproductive ecology. However, except for R. reinwardtii in which breed in
ephemeral ponds (Yazid 2006), no other study has been conducted on reproductive
behavior of the pond species in Indonesia.
Although we only observed six month period, there is no apparent breeding season of P.
vittiger. Both male call and eggs clutch were observed every time survey was carried out
in each month. However, it seems that breeding peak will coincided with the timing of
rain, as observed by other researchers working on other tropical species (Church 1960,
1961, Inger & Bacon 1968, Premo 1985, Jaafar 1994).
The intrusion of other male during amplexus of P. vittiger in this research shows the
instance of mate piracy that also occur in other species (Byrne and Roberts 1999, Davis
and Roberts 2004, Vieites et al 2004). Yazid (2006) reported the unsuccessful attempt of
other non-selected male to engage in the mating process during amplexus of a pair of
R. reinwardtii in Bogor which was ousted by the pair. However, we have seen a female
of R. reinwardtii during oviposition with three males on her back in Bodogol at Mount
Gede Pangrango National Park (Kusrini, unpublished data) without apparent act of
protestation. No aggressive behavior is obvious during the intrusion of other male of P.
vittiger in our observation. Since we were unable to observe amplexus in the wild, we are
unsure if this kind of polyandrous mating and non-resistance behavior of the paired frogs
to the other male is common in this frog.
The genus Philautus is characterized by direct development in which eggs develop into
froglets without an aquatic stage of tadpole (Bossuyt and Dubois 2001). The result of
32
this survey reveals that Philautus vittiger have a free tadpole stage, contrary to the
characteristic of the genus. Therefore, in our opinion, there is a need to review the
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taxonomy of this species and exclude this species from Philautus genus.
Although we are unable to quantify the survival of embryo to hatching period through
metamorphosis stage, however it is clear that development of embryo during pre-
hatching are vulnerable to risk of predation by ants and desiccation. Our laboratory work
shows that rearing newly fertilized eggs proved unsuccessful without the attendance of
its parent. Unattended eggs might have up to 100 % mortality compared to attended
eggs. Hatched tadpole that had difficulty of sliding to water (and stuck in the leaf) might
eventually die as shown in our laboratory development. Rainfall might be helpful during
the hatching periods by providing escape route to water. Newly hatched larvae ate
attached algae, however as their body grows tadpoles also ate Tubifex and body parts of
their dead conspecific (see appendix). The food habit of P. vittiger is apparently similar
to Polypedates leucomystax who also ate the carcass of the conspecific tadpole (Alcala
1962, Yorke 1983).
Other research elsewhere has shown that parental cares were mostly in form of egg
attendance (Wells 1977), with the intention of reducing risk of embryo mortalities (Taigen
et al 1984, Croshaw and Scott 2005). Eggs might be defended by male, female or both
(Wells 1977). In the case of P. vittiger parental females seems to have more role in
guarding eggs, although parental males are also seen nearby. It is not clear whether
males have roles in guarding eggs or rather guarding its territories. There are not many
reports on parental care behavior of Indonesian species. Parental behavior of two
species of frogs were observed in two species of frogs in Sulawesi which are Rana
arathonii (Brown and Iskandar 2000) and Limnonectes modestus (Lubis et al 2008). In
both species, male individuals were seen guarding clutch of eggs in terrestrial nest (R.
arathoonii) and in leaf (L. modestus). The wiping of eggs by the hind limb by its guardian
is presumably to maintain the moisture of its eggs. Maintaining moisture behavior is also
observed by other species such as Dendrobates pumilio in which males urinating on its
eggs (Weygoldt 1980) and males Chirixalus effingeri (Chen et al 2007) from Taiwan in
which used its ventral surfaces.
The distribution of Philautus vittiger in CGI concession is relatively broad. Since there is
no previous report on the preceding population, we could not conclude the population
status of this species. However, by looking at the number of individual and breeding
activity found during the survey we assumed that the current population in CGI is quite
healthy. To ensure the population of this frog, the ponds where P. vittiger occur should
be maintained. Care needs to be taken by not disturbing vegetation surrounding the
area. Pond-1 has the highest number of clutch found during the survey, although we
found evidence of fish in this area. Discussion by the workers revealed that fishes were
brought from outside since the pond, due to its easy access (on side of the road), is
popular for recreational fishing among workers. There are several reports that implicate
the occurrence of fish to the reduction of frogs species elsewhere (Bronmark & Edenham
1994, Gillespie & Hero 1999, Knapp & Matthews 2000), thus we advice the management
to prohibit the introduction of fish to the ponds.
LITERATURE CITED
Altig, R., R.W. McDiarmid, K.A. Nichols, P. A. Ustach. Tadpoles of the United States and
Canada: A Tutorial and Key (In preparation). Accessed at
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Appendix-1. Development of Philautus vittiger embryos from newly fertilized eggs by a pair of
th
frogs taken on 29 of August 2008 from the field.
Appendix-2. Development of Philautus vittiger embryos from newly fertilized eggs by a pair of
frogs taken on September 2008 from the field.
31 July 6 tadpoles 1 tadpoles Tadpoles in stage 42. Six tadpoles died and
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one in stage 44
4 December 2 19 Two tadpoles died. Some of the surviving
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The project has become an important component to understand the ecology of Javanese
tree frogs; many are dependable on the availability of forest habitat and water bodies in
the surrounding area. The CGI offers highly accessible site to study, thus we
recommend the following actions regarding the conservation of amphibian in general in
this area:
1. Conservation effort thus should focus on maintaining the pond habitats. Care
needs to be taken by not disturbing vegetation surrounding the area and prohibit
the introduction of fish.
2. Regular monitoring should be conducted. Philautus vittiger are well suited to
monitoring pond habitats as they restricted themselves in ponds to breed, and
males congregate to call at night from vegetation at the water edge. Ponds can
be easily surveyed at night, either by listening for chorus activity (to record
presence/absence), or by counting individuals along transect at the perimeter of
the pond. This type of nocturnal monitoring could also be extended to include two
other common species that frequently encountered at the pond perimeter: R.
reinwardtii and R. javanus.
3. Our data showed that the anuran community in Mount Gede Pangrango has
been exposed to Bd. Therefore, there is also a need to conduct more
assessment on the presence of Bd to other highland regions in Java especially in
CGI concessions. The management should alert researchers if there is any
evidence of large kills of anuran in their region.
4. Detailed research on ecology of tree frogs should be conducted to other species.
Frog calls should be recorded and analysis to help other researchers to identify
frogs based calls
5. Material such as identification books should be produced to aid the management
in manage the amphibians of the area
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