BASES FOR PROVIDE DURABILITY ANALYSIS

OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Radomir Foli
Faculty of Technical Sciences, 21000 Novi Sad, Trg D. Obradovia 6,
folic @uns.ac .rs Serbia

S U M M A R Y
Abstract. Reinforced concrete structures are designed in accordance with national or international
codes and standards such as Model Code Euro international Committee of Concrete (1993), Eurocode
2, ACI 318, RILEM etc. Present design procedures are predominantly based on strength principles. A
verification procedure is based on limit state formulation. The durability aspect is a natural extension
of the classical resistance verification where deterioration effects are normally neglected. The
reliability is assessed through the given performance which must be delivered within the designed
service life. This approach can be adopted for a performance based on service life design. Structures
such as pavements and bridges do not achieve the desired service life, and need to be designed and
detailed for long-term durability based on service-life consideration. In the recent years design is
related to durability through the analisys of carbonation, resistance to chloride ingress, improved
freezing and thawing resistance, and so on. The review of literature and some recommendations, for
design of structures aimed to attain greater durability, is presented. Federation Internationale du Beton
(FIB).
Radomir FOLI
OSNOVE OBEZBEENJA TRAJNOSTI ARMIRANOBETONSKIH
KONSTRUKCIJA
Iskustvo sa armiranobetonskim konstrukcijama u skorijoj prolosti uslovio je preispitivanje
tehnikih propisa za njihovo projektovanje i graenje. Poslednjih godina u preporukama
meunarodnih udruenja i tehnikim propisima nekih zemalja, kao i u Evopskim normama uvodi se
novi pristup projektovanju armiranobetonskih konstrukcija. Razlog za to je. Naime, njihova trajnost
,
- ( 1993.), 2,
, .
.
.
-
.
.
,
.

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1. INTRODUCTION AND TERMINOLOGY
Civil engineering structures are complex systems whose components differ in durability.
Building contain elements that can last from 100 to 150 years such as foundations, walls and floor
slabs, while on the other hand there are components that need frequent replacing. However, some
structures have not satisfactory durability. Zbog toga je znacajno basic understanding of the complex
set of multidisciplinary phenomena governing durability and long term performansce of concrete
structures as basis for service life design. In order to construct a durable and reliable structure it is
necessary to design it for durability and provided required service life. The structure is considered as
durable in the actual environment as long as its function is acceptable. Performance of structure
means its combined short and long-term fulfilment of the functional requirements (safety,
serviceability and appearance of structure during its time in use). Fu ncional requerements and
corresponding properties could be: minimum load carrying capacity (concrete and steel
strength, corrosion and spalls of concrete depth); maximum acceptable deformation
(E/modulus, shrinkage, creep, thermal movement, and settlements); maximum penetrability
for gaseous or liquid substance (concrete permeability, capillarity and diffusivity, and size and
arrangement of cracks).
For civil engineering structures reliability is the probability of a structure to fulfil the given
function in its service lifetime, i.e. to keep the characteristics in given limits (performance) as defined
in accordance to the defined using regime - consists of safety, durability and serviceability with the
maintenance abilities. Failure is described in terms of one or more limit states (connected to the
impossibility of further usage of the structure or element). Durability is the capability of maintaining
the serviceability of a structure over specified time.
Serviceability is viewed as the capacity of the structures to perform the functions for which
they are designed and constructed within normal use conditions. Service life is the period of time after
construction during which all properties exceed the minimum acceptable values when routinely
maintained. A service life design conditioned that designers choice of fundamental properties to fulfil
all the functional requirements during target time. The two phases of deterioration are:
The initial phase (period) in which no noticeable weakening of properties, except protective
barrier.
The propagation phase with active deterioration mechanisms develop at an increase
rate with time.
In practice there are three different types of service life depending on the type of considered
performance: Technical service life (Fig.1) is the time of service until acceptable state is reached
(failure). Functional service life is the expected time in service until the structure no longer fulfils
the functional requirements. Economic service life is the time in service until replacement of the
structure is economically more then keeping it in service. Real service life must not be shorter than
nominal - normative life.
Fig. 1 Service life of concrete structures a two-phase modelling deterioration
2. REVIEW OF CODES
Reinforced concrete (RC) structures designed in accordance with national or international codes
and standards such as Model Code Euro international Committee of Concrete (1993), Eurocode 0 and
2, ACI 318, RILEM at all. The minimum requirements to be fulfilled are stated in national codes and
standards. Historical and traditional reasons influenced that codes and standards differ considerably
from country to country. The deterministic design for durability will govern for some time still, but
with regular updating of the characteristics of the environmental and improvements of the modelling
of transport and deterioration mechanisms. Parameters which influenced on durability are: the cement
type and quality, control of early age cracking, limitation of crack with, etc. Their values depend of the
environmental aggressively. Probabilistic performance based service life design used because
variation of concrete structures (CS) due different structures properties of the structural part, concrete
compositions and different location conditions. Modelling of environment and deterioration
mechanisms is being developed on a probabilistic basis allowing reliability based service life design.
Service life design methods are similar to the load and resistance factor design procedure used for
structural design.
Present design procedures dominated based on strength principles, design are increasingly being
refined to address durability requirements (resistance to chloride ingress, improved freezing and
thawing resistance and so on). Inherent with design calculation is a certain level of durability, such as
requirement for concrete cover to protect reinforcement under aggressive action from environment and
industry. Structures such as pavements and bridges have not exhibited the desirability of service life,
and needs to be made to design and detail for long - term durability based on service-life
consideration.
The Eurocode system has been chosen as the basis for design. The durability of a structure is its
ability to remain fit for use during the design working life given appropriate maintenance. The
structure should designed in such a way that, or provided with protection so that, no significant
deterioration is likely to occur within the period between successive inspections. The need for critical
parts of the structure to be available for inspection, within complicated dismantling, should be a part of
the design []. Possible evolutions of a structure during its working life using a suitable performance
indicator that is assumed to be a monotonously decreasing function of time. It can be expressed in
terms of various units: mechanical, financial, reliability, etc. In all cases, after a certain period of time,
the performance indicator decreases, for example due to corrosion of steel, carbonation of concrete,
repeated opening of cracks in concrete member, spalling, etc. The principal requirement to be
considered in the overall strategy for achieving durability: in particular, decision with regard to the life
performance required from the structural members and whether individual members are to be
replaceable, maintainable or should have a long-term design life.
The Eurocode are based on the limit state approach in combination with a system of
characteristic values and partial factors. In most cases durability concerns the serviceability of
structures. In this paper some new formulations by adding deterioration processes in serviceability
limit state are presented. In the cases where deterioration of concrete structure might go on unobserved
the durability problem can be directly associated with an ultimate limit state. The description of a limit
state may require one or more limit state functions.
Concrete structures (CS) are exposed to different actions of environment and are vulnerable to
damage as corrosion and freezing and thawing. The deterioration of CS is affected by the
environment, and adequate measures need to be examined when considering the strategy to achieve
durability. The use of materials that provide increased durability should be considered in the overall
strategy for durability, for example epoxy-coated reinforcing steels or concrete with low permeability.
The design should avoid structural systems which are inherently vulnerable and sensitive to
predictable damage and deterioration. The shape of members together with their detailing will
influence the durability of a structure. The increase durability, structural members should be protected
from detrimental environments. Maintenance should be considered during the design. Provision
should be made for inspection, maintenance and possible replacement
Service life depends on structural design and detailing, mixture proportioning, concrete
production and placement, construction methods and maintenance. Design of RCS to ensure adequate
durability is complicated process []. Water or other fluid is involved concrete degradation concrete
permeability is important. It is well known that deterioration of concrete dependent of the presence
and transport water or other fluid, i.e. concrete permeability (concrete pore structure, presence of
cracks and microclimate at the concrete surface). In Model Code presents the relationship between the
concepts of concrete durability and performance. Transportation of heat, moisture and chemicals, both
within the concrete and exchange with the surrounding environment constitute main element of
durability.
In EN 1990:2002 E [] a structure shall be designed to have adequate: structural resistance, and
durability. Durability including the choice of the design service life depends of environmental actions.
To prevent potential causes of failure requires reliability levels to be maintained. Design working life
should be specified. Design working life (DWL) category 3 with indicative DWL for replaceable
structural parts is 10 to 25 years; building structures and other common structures indicative DWL is
50 years: monumental buildings structures, bridges, and other engineering structures.
In most cases durability concerns the serviceability of the structure. However in cases where
deterioration might go on unobserved the durability problem can be directly associated with an
ultimate limit state. The description of a limit state may require one or more limit state functions. One
of the consequences of the required reliability in the service life design of a structure is the fact that
between the design service life and the mean service life a margin be present. This margin depends on
the required level of reliability, the type of service life distribution and its mean value and scatter [].
In [] are introduced three consequences of classes (CC3-high consequences for very great loss)
CC2 for medium and CC1 for low consequences. Reliability classes may be defined by the
reliability index. Three reliability classes RC1, RC2 and RC3 may be associated with consequences
class (CC1, CC2, and CC3). Minimum value for 50 years reference period are (RC3=4.3; RC2=3.8
and RC1=3.3).
In [12] are introduced five degrees of aggressiveness of the environmental exposure according
to Model-Code CEB-FIP (1993). In ISO based on the principles given in [10] is presented
classification of environmental conditions [6]. In [7] is discussed environmental management-life
cycle assessment, and in [8] service life planning. Document [9] is also important for performance
standard in building. These documents are broadly discussed in [1].
The durability of a structure means its resistance against the actions from the
environment surrounding the structure. The element of design, material selection, execution
and curing which determine the quality of concrete is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Figure Relationship between durability and performance, after [CEB 1992]
The rate of deterioration may be estimated and consequently the prediction of design service
life, in the context of durability including: the use of knowledge and experience acquired from
laboratory and field investigations; estimates based on the performance of similar materials in a
similar environment, modelling degrading processes, and use of accelerated testing. The long term
capacity depends on the degradation of concrete and steel. The minimum acceptable values for
performance, or maximum acceptable values for degradation, are called durability limit states. Several
mathematical models have been developed to predict service life of concrete subjected to degradation
processes as describe in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2-Aggressive substance influence on concrete and reinforcement
3. RELIABILITY AND METHOD OF DURABILITY DESIGN
The theory of durability design based on the theory of safety traditionally is used in structural
design. The strength R and actions (load) S are functions of a large number of stochastic variables, and
general is function of time [11]. The main criterion for reliability can be written as:
FAILURE = R < S (1)
The probability of failure P
f
defined as:
P
f
(t)= P{R(t) < S(t)} (2)
The failure probability increases continuously with time as schematically presented in Fig
3. The function P
f
(t) has the character of a distribution function. Considering continuous
distributions the failure probability P
f
at a certain moment of time can be determined by using
the convolution integral:
P
f
(t) =

ds s f s F
S R
) ( ) (
(3)
where F
R
(s)= the distribution function of R,
f
s
(s)= the probability density function of S,
s = the common quantity or measure of R and S.
Fig. 3-Increase of failure probability
The steightforward solution of the integral (4) is only available in a few cases, i. e. when the
distributions of R and S are normal, but the integral can be solved by approximative numerical
methods. The distribution of service life can be obtained by calculating the failure probability values at
different moments of time.
In stochastic durability design, not only target service life but also the definition of maximum
allowable probability of not reaching the target service life is necessary. It is called the probability of
failure []. When failure is caused by degradation of materials the term "durability failure" is used.
Theory of durability design is based on the theory of structural reliability. The basic formulae of
durability design can be written according to two optional principles:
performance (actions S are set into relationship with the performance), and
service life principle (the service life t
L
evaluated by a service life model must be greater than
the required target service life t
g
).
In deterministic durability design approach, actions (loads), resistance, and service life are used as
deterministic quantities, and distribution of this function is not considered. The design formula:
R(t
g
) - S(t
g
)>0 (4)
where t
g
is the target service life.
In reality S and R are time dependent functions, while the service life principle design formula is:
t
L
-t
g
>0 (5)
where t
L
is the service life function
In stochastic design method the distributions of actions, response and service life are taken into
account. The condition that the probability that the service life of a structure would be shorter than the
target life is smaller than a certain allowable failure probability is written as:
P{failure}
tg
=P{t
L
<t
g
}<P
fmax
(6)
The problem can be solved if the distribution of service life is known.
Although the lifetime safety method is based on the theory of reliability, formulation of the design
procedure returns to deterministic form. The design service life is determined by multiplying the target
service lifetime safety factor:
t
d
=
t
t
g
(7)
Where: t
d
-the design service life,
t
- the lifetime safety factor, and t
g
-target service life.
With performance principle or the service life principle can be written:
R(t
d
)-S(t
d
) 0 (8)
t
L
- t
d
> 0 (9)
The lifetime safety factor must be calibrated with results of stochastic design methods and the value
depends on maximum allowable failure probability.
Distribution types that can be used for the evaluation of service life or performance of structures
include the following distribution: normal - Gaussian, log-normal, exponential, Weibull, and gamma
distribution.
Experience has demonstrated that concrete structures are exposed to different actions of environment
and are vulnerable to damage as corrosion and freezing and thawing. Damage considerably influences
the service life of concrete structures. In performance design the commonest assumption is that actions
or resistance, or both, are normal distributed. By this approach R and S are normally distributed
quantities, the failure probability can determined by using the test index (in structural design -
reliability index) which is normally distributed:
2 / 1 2 2
]) , [ ] , [ (
] , [ ] . [
) (
t S t R
t S t R
t



(10)
When S or R is constant, index has forms:
] , [
] , [
) (
t S
t S r
t

(11)
] , [
] , [
) (
t R
s t R
t

(12)
where r and s are constants.
For R=constant and S time dependent function approximated by a degradation model, contrary
when S is constant and R is time dependent function the problem is called a performance problem.
When the performance principle is applied, the commonest assumption is that either the action or the
resistance, or both, are normally distributed. When the service life principle is used, the distribution of
service life is often assumed to log-normal, i.e. normal on a logarithmic time scale [2]. Performance
behaviour can be always be translated into degradation behaviour, because degradation is a decrease in
performance.
4. CORROSION DUE CARBONATION
Reinforcing steel deteriorates primarily due to corrosion, consisting of initiation (carbonation
penetration or chloride ion ingress) and propagation (material loss) stages. The corrosion products
cause internal pressures that can lead to cracking and spalling of the concrete. Chemical changes take
place in the concrete surrounding the reinforcement caused by: carbonation of concrete due o carbon
dioxide in air, penetration of aggressive anions (especially chlorides) into concrete. Steel will corrode
freely when exposed to moisture and oxygen under ambient conditions. The passive ferric oxide film
on embedded steel may be disrupted by a reduction in the alkalinity of the concrete by carbonation or
by the presence of aggressive ions such as chlorides and sulphates. If de-passivating condition exists in
concrete, either by a reduction in alkalinity (pH<10.5) or by the presence of sufficient chloride ions
corrosion may occur (Fig. 4). Carbonation is said occur when the calcium hydroxide in the concrete
reacts with carbon dioxide from the atmosphere [3], as follows:

water
Ca(OH)
2
+CO
2
CaCO
3
+2H
2
O (13)
Fig. 4-Ingress of the carbonated zone to the reinforcement
The depth of carbonation is assumed to be normal distributed, and for the coefficient of
variation is assumed to be constant. Figure 6 shows the process of carbonation in the concrete
cover. When the mean of the carbonation depth increases with time, the standard deviation
also increases keeping the ratio of variation constant. That part of the distribution of carbonation
depth that exceeds the thickness of the concrete cover shows the failure probability (Fig. 5). The
progress of carbonation with time can be described on the basis of Fick`s first law with sufficient
accuracy [7] by:
t
C
C
D d
c
a
c c
2
(14)
where dc = depth of carbonation [m]
t = duration of carbonation [sec]
D
c
= diffusion coefficient of CO
2
through carbonated concrete [m
2
/sec]
C
a
= concentration of CO
2
in the air [gr/m
3
]
C
c
= amount of CO
2
required for complete carbonation of a unit mass of the concrete [gr/m
3
].
Fig. 5- Schematic representation of the process of carbonation in a concrete caver []
The term Cc depends on the type of cement as well as on the presence of additions. The
diffusion coefficient Dc is controlled primarily by the pore structure and by the moisture content of the
concrete.
As a result, the alkalinity of the concrete is lowered and the passivation can no longer be
preserved, so that corrosion of the reinforcement is then possible. Carbonation is diffusion process
[14], and depth of carbonation d
c
can be expressed as a function of time:
t a d
c

2
(15)
Constant
a
is dependent on permeability of concrete (water-cement ratio, type of cement and
its content, particle size of aggregate, curing of concrete and humidity) and the content of carbon
dioxide in the air. The constant
a
is expressed by:
K R
w
a

7 . 2
6 . 17 46
(16)
where w is water cement ratio (< 0.6),
R is influence of the cement, and
K is the influence of the climatic conditions.
R varies between 1.0 2.2 depending on cement class, and K from 0.3 1.0 [14].
Depth of carbonation is:
t K R
w
d

7 . 2
6 . 17 46
(17)
The formula (16) gives an average value. The maximum depth of carbonation is 5 to 10 mm
(Fig. 6). The forms of carbonation profile encountered in practice presented in Fig. 7.
Fig. 6a-Irregular carbonation front in concrete, after []
Fig. 6b- The forms of carbonation profile encountered in practice [Error: Reference source not
found]
Due to the non-uniform front of the carbonization, the time of its development will be:
2
2 2
2
6 . 17 46
7 . 2

,
_

w K R
d
t
d
(18)
The effect of wetting and drying cycles on carbanation is illustrated in Fig.
Figure 6c- Influence of wetting and drying cycles on the rate of carbonation
5. CHLORIDE CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT
The chloride induced corrosion of the reinforcement caused by high concentrations of chloride
ions into concrete. In unsaturated concrete, the adsorption and diffusion of gases and liquid absorption
are important, whereas in saturated concrete the predominant transport process is likely to be
molecular or ionic diffusion. Only in case of higher pressures the fluid flow may occur []. The
deterioration of concrete element due to reinforcement corrosion can be divided into two phases (Fig.
7):
The initiation phase starts with the construction of the structure and end with the de-
passivation of the reinforcing steel. During this phase chlorides penetrate from the surface of the
concrete to the reinforcement.
During the propagation phase reinforcement actively corrodes, and duration of these phases
depends of corrosion rate and finishes with the structural failure.
The commonest sources of chlorides are see water and de-icing salts, and admixed chloride is
not considered. A durable concrete structures should have both a long initiation phase and slow
corrosion rate. The initiation period is usually much longer than propagation period. Some simplified
models such as Fick`s second law of diffusion has been used for life prediction in combination with
so-called critical chloride levels, the actual processes are much more complex than such simplistic
models []. According to Tuutti`s model the corrosion rate in the propagation period controlled by the
rate of oxygen diffusion to the chloride and temperature. A conservative estimate of the service life is
usually made by only considering the initiation period. If the concrete is continuously saturated with
water, the model predicts that corrosion processes active in the propagation period become the rate -
controlling processes because of the extremely low diffusion rate of oxygen through the water.
Chloride ions can exist in concrete in two forms: dissolved in water and as chemically bonded
chlorides that have reacted with the cement paste. The ratio between the free chloride ion content in
the pore solution and the bond chloride content in the porous body varies between 0.4 and 1.0.
Fig 7 - Schematic presentation of conceptual model (Tuutti) of corrosion of steel reinforcement in
concrete, after []
Low permeability increases the electrical resistivity of concrete which impends the flow of
electrochemical corrosion currents. The intrusion of chloride ions in reinforcement concrete can cause
steel corrosion if oxygen and moisture are also available to sustain the reaction. Chloride ions may be
introduced into concrete in a variety of ways (penetration by de-icing salt, industrial brines, marine
spray, fog, or mist). Chloride transport in water and diffusion of chloride ions are formulated with
Fick`s second low described in [].
The one-dimensional diffusion process follows Fick`s second law of diffusion (Fig. 5) and the
error function solution by Crank used, and must be solved:
2
2
x
C
D
t
C

(19)
with boundary conditions of:
C
x
=0 at t=0 and 0 < x < (20)
C
x
=C
s
at x=0 and 0 < t < (21)
Where: C
x
= chloride concentration at depth x at time t,
C
s
= surface chloride concentration,
D = diffusion coefficient;
x = distance from the concrete surface to steel reinforcement,
t = time of exposure, and
erf= error function.
Crank's solution of Fick`s second law of diffusion can be stated as follows [14], using apparent
diffusion coefficient:
5 . 0
) ( 2
1
t D
x
erf
C
C
ca S
x

(22)
Where: D
ca
=apparent diffusion coefficient
Solving this second order parabolic parallel differential equation for specific boundary
conditions allows relationships to be found between time t the chloride diffusion coefficient D and the
concentration of chloride C at a depth x from Eq. (22) can determined initiation time.
During the 1980s Schiessl examined the use of finite difference models to take account of the
criticisms of using a fixed value of diffusion coefficient alone without allowing for other effects. The
following approximation of Fick`s second law was achieved, in the case of the one-dimensional
model, assuming central difference from for spatial derivatives:

2
1 1
2
x
c c c
D
t
C
i i i

+
(23)
Temporal derivatives and spatial derivatives were determined and a linear set of equations was set up.
These were solved for each time step and a concentration profile was determined.
The formula may be simplified by using a parabola function [14]:

1
]
1

5 . 0
) 3 ( 2
1
t D
x
C C
S x
(24)
The formula for the initiation time of corrosion can then be written in the following form:
2
5 . 0
0
) ( 1
12
1
1
1
1
]
1

S
I
C
C
x
D
t (25)
A simplified form of the equation for design is:
ca
AD
x
t
2

(26)
where t= time to de-passivating,
x=depth of cover,
A= constant dependent on the surface chloride level (C
S
) and the critical chloride corrosion
threshold (C
cr
),
C
ca
=diffusion coefficient.
The constant A is determined through Fick`s second law. According [13] the use of Eq. (27)
with the following values of the constant, assuming a critical corrosion threshold of 1 per cent by
weight of cement A=1.8, for C
S
= 3% (by weight of cement), and A=2.65, for C
S
= 4%. In many
standards require threshold values not higher than 0.4% (CI
-
) by weight of cement for reinforced
concrete (RC), and 0.2% for prestressed concrete.
6. SERVICE LIFE PREDICTION
If the degradation process at a proportional rate by the same mechanism in both accelerated
aging and long-term in service tests, an acceleration factor K can be obtained from:
K=R
AT
/R
LT
(27)
Where: R
AT
is the rate of degradation in accelerated tests, and R
LT
is the rate of degradation in
long-term in service testing. If the relationship between the rates is non-linear, then mathematical
modelling of the degradation mechanism is recommended to establish the relationship [].
One approach to predicting the structures reliability or its service life under future operating
conditions is through probability-based techniques involving time-dependent reliability analyses.
For service - life prediction and reliability assessment, the probability of non-failure over some
period of time, (0,t), is more important than the reliability of the structure at the particular time
provided by (7). The probability that a structure survives during interval of time (0,t) is defined by
reliability function L(0,t). If n discrete actions S
1
, S
2
,.... S
n
occur at time t
1
, t
2
, ...tn during (0,t), the
reliability function becomes
L(0,t = P {R(t
1
) > S
1
,...,R(t
n
) > S
n
(28)
The conditional probability of failure within time interval (t,t+t), given that the component
has survived during (0,t), is defined by the hazard function
h(t) = -d(ln L(o,t)/dt
which is especially useful for analyzing structural failures due to aging or deterioration. For
example, the probability that time to structural failure, T
f
, occurs before a future maintenance
operation at t+t, given that the structure has survived to t, can be evaluated as
G (t)=P{ T
f
t+t T
f
>t} = 1 exp[

+ t t
t
dx x h ) (
] (29)
The hazard function for pure change failures is constant. However, when structural aging
occurs and strength deteriorates, h (t) characteristically increases with time.
Four measures of reliability have been considered: conventional factor of safety (FS), the
central factor of safety (CFS), the safety margin (S), and the reliability index . The reliability index
concept is very popular indicator for probabilistically based design in structural engineering.
Assessment of reliability is made entirely by comparing the calculated reliability index

with those
found to be adequate on the basis of previous experience with the structure under consideration. The
process begins with a mathematical model that relates the capacity (strength) and demand (actions) for
a limit state of interest. The lifetime safety factor depends on the maximum allowable failure
probability the smaller the maximum allowable failure probability the greater is the lifetime safety
factor. The lifetime safety also depends on the form of service life distribution.
Fig.8 - The meaning of lifetime safety factor in a performance problem []
Fig. 8. illustrates the meaning of lifetime safety factor when the design is carried out according
to the performance principle. The function R(t) - S is called the margin of safety. The crossing point of
the R(t) curve with the minimum load effect S given the mean service life which equals the design
service life.
Performance behaviour can always be translated into degradation behaviour, because
degradation is a decrease in performance. The transformation is performed by the following
substitution:
R
0
- R(t) = D(t) (8)
R
0
- S = R
0
- R
min
= D
max
(9)
Fig. 9. shows the principle of design in a degradation problem. D(t) is degradation effects of
environmental loading on the performance of the structure. The curve D(t) crosses the maximum
degradation at the design service life, which must be longer than the service life (Fig. 7). The range
D
max
- D(T) is the safety margin. The diagram of the member forces extreme values represents the
forces envelope for the them the envelope of the possible influences for all the registrations.
Fig.9- The meaning of lifetime safety factor in degradation problem []
7. REFERENCES
1. Durability of Concrete Structures-Investigation, repair, protection, Ed. by G. Mays, E&EN Spon,
London, 1992.
2. CEB-FIP: Model Code 1990, T. Thelford, London, 1993.
3. CEB-FIP: Durable of Concrete Structures, Design Guide, T. Thelford, London, 1992.
4. DuraCrete: General Guidelines for Durability Design and Redisgn, The Europien Union Brite
EuRam III, Project No. BE95-1347, Performance based Durability Design of Concrete Structures,
Report No. T7-01, 1999.
5. FIB (CEB-FIP), Bulletin 3 Structural Concrete Textbook on behaviour, Design and
Performance (Updated knowledge of the CEB/FIP Model Code 1990), Vol. 3, December 1999.
6. FIB (CEB-FIP), Bulletin 34 Model Code for Service Life Design, fib, Lausanne, Switzerland,
2006, str. 116
7. FIB (CEB-FIP), Bulletin 47 Environmental design of concrete structures general principles,
August 2008.
8. HERON Vol. 52, No 4, Special Issue on Durabity of Concret Strucrures, Delft, 2007.
9. HERON Vol. 54, No 1, Special Issue: Adapting to climate change, Delft, 2009.
10. EN 1990-Eurocode- Basis of structural design, CEN, Brussels, 2002.
11. Foli, R.: Durability and service life of concrete structures-Design modelling, PAM, Bull. for
Appl. and Comp. Math.(BAM), Budapest, Nr. 2195, 2004, pp. 33-44.
12. Foli, R. (2004): Chloride corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete Structure - Mathematical
modelling, Budapest, BAM-CVII/04, No 2233, pp 93-104.
13. Foli, R.: Some aspects of deterioration and maintenance of concrete bridges, The 6
th
International Conference of Danube Bridges, Budapest, 12-14 September 2007, Ed. M. Ivanyi &
R. Bancila, pp. 377- 388.
14. Gulvanessian, H., Calgaro, J-A., Holickz,M.: Designers Guide to EN 1990, T. Telford, London,
2002.
15. Kevern, J.T. et al. Previous concrete in servere exposures-Development of pollution-reducing
pavement for nothern cities, Concrete International, July 2008, pp. 43-49.
16. Kraker, A. at. all.: Safety, Reliability and Service Life of Structures. Heron, Vol.27. No 1. Delft
1982.
17. Mitchell, D., Frohnsdorff, G.: Sevice-Life Modeling and Design of Concrete Structures for
Durability , Concrete International, December 2004, pp. 57-63.
18. Pravilnik o tehnikim normativima za beton i armirani beton u objektima izloenih agresivnom
dejstvu sredine (Sl. list SFRJ 18/92) i Dejstva materija agresivnih prema betonu i zatita od njih
19. Richardson, M. G.: Fundamentals of Durable Reinforced Concrete , Spon Press, London, 2002.
20. RILEM Report 14: Durability Design of Concrete Structures (Ed. A.Sarja and E. Vesikari), Spon,
London, 1996.
21. Service-Life Prediction-State of the Art report, ACI Committee 365. 1R-42, 2000. pp. 44.
22. Siems, A., Wrouwenvelder, A., Beukel,A. : Durability of Buildings-A Reliability Analysis,
Herron, Vol. 30, No 3, Delft, 1985., pp 3-48.
23. Siems, T., Polder, R., de Vries, H.: Design of Concrete Structures for durability, HERON, Delft,
Vol. 43, No 4, 1998. pp 227-244.
24. The Application and Measurement of Protective Coatings for Concrete, the Concrete Repair
A ssociation, 2001.
25. Vrouwenvelder, A., Schiessel, P.: Durability aspects of probabilistic ULS design, Heron, Vol. 44,
No 1, Delft, 1999, pp. 10-20.
26. IEC 60721: Classification of environmental conditions
27. ISO 14040:1997, Environmental management- Life cycle assessment Principles and framework
28. ISO 15686, Buildings and construction assets Service life planning
29. ISO/DIS-2349, "General Principles on Reliability for Structures".
Concrete structure shall be designed so that it can satisfy requirements regarding safety,
serviceability, durability and environmentality of the struture throughout its design service
life.
Beside design for durability (selection of materials and geometrical value) f or prolonged
service life, i.e. increase durability it is very important limitation: of CO
2
emission, water
pollution, soil contamination, dust, chemical substances, and so on. Environmental
performances....
ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN
The environmental design system of buildings and civil engineering structures, in which the
selection of materials and structural shape, construction work, maintenance, and demolition
and recycling, should be established in aim to minimized the used and resources and energy,
to decrease hazardous substances, and control construction and demolition waste [].
Design of durable structures contributed to the realization of a sustainable society.
Environmental design contributes for sustainability and to reduce detrimental impacts on
nature, society and humans. Some of FIP reports [] and [] provide general principles for all
phase of design, construction, use, management, demolishes and reuse after demolition of
concrete structures. In ASO 14004 environment define as surrounding of structures including
air, water, land, natural resources, human and their interaction. Environment risk management
obtain activities which integrate recognition of risk, assessment of environmental risk,
development of strategies to manage it, and mitigation of environmental risk. Environmental
performance related to the organisations control of its environmental aspects based on
environmental policy, objectives and targets.
In conceptual design must make good decision in the early phase of a project. The structural
design focuses on the structures ability to resist the environmental impact imposed on the
structure. Durability design comprises the design concerning the structures ability to resist of
minimizing the environmental impact imposed on the structure. Environmental design
comprises the design of minimizing the environment impact that the structure imposes on the
environment during its entire life span, provided that structural and durability requirements
are fulfilled [ fib Env ] .
The interaction between the concrete and the environment determines the possible
deterioration mechanisms.
The structure interacted with the environment. Classification of environmental exposure ...
EN 1990. Complex set of multidisciplinary phenomena governing durability and long term
performance of concrete structures as a basis for service life design. The focus is on the
structure and its interaction with the environment [ CEB 1992 ] .
Action (load) must be resisted by the structure through selecting a combination a combination
of structural systems, element geometry, and material properties [ fib 3 ] . With durability
design we can verified that the intended service life can be achieved with an acceptable level
of reliability. The codes provide only qualitative definitions of exposure and they fail to
define the design life in relation to durability.
Fig. Importance of the protective concrete layer to protect the structure against deterioration
Fig. Time to corrosion initiation due to carbonation or chloride penetration depending on the
real concrete cover as achieved in the finished structure. The example corresponds to high
quality uncracked concrete
Aim of a design is to achieve an acceptable probability that the structure being designed will
perform satisfactory during its intended life. In first step designer must define actions/loads
and asses safety factor as multiplier. These design actions/loads must be resist by the structure
through selecting a combination of structural systems, element geometry and types of
materials. With durability design we must provide some structural measure and calculation to
verify that the intended life can be achieved with ban acceptable level of reliability.
Designers` guide EN 1990-he degree of reliability should be adopted so as to take into
account: the cause and mode of failure (suddenly collapse, low ductility- britle element)
should be designed for a higher degree of reliability; the possible consequences of failure in
term of risk to life and economic consequences; the expense, level of effort and social and
environmental conditions; the expense level of effort and procedure necessary to reduce the
risk of failure.
In design working life this procedure are used:
the selecon of design actions and the consideration of material property deterioration,
comparison f different design solutions and choice of materials (balance between the
initial cost and cost over an agreed period, i.e. life cycle cost,
management procedures for systematic uctures.
Climate change is great concern about the origin of the change in global temperature..In
design climate effects are taken into account by applying design codes, or on bases of past
observation of behaviour.
Channges in climate will have an effect on the design loads. Structures are design to have a
minimum resistance to the actions (loads) on the structures or their parts. Climatic actions and
their intensities on structures such as wind, temperature, rain and snow vary in time.
The European standard for structural saafety EN 1990 use 50 years for buidings and 100years
for monumental building structures, bridges and other civil engineering structures.
The reliabilty of structure depends on both actions (loading) and properties (performance).
For structural safety design is based on reliability analysisusing probabalistic model for both
the loads and resistance of the structure, and treated stochastically. The probability densities
of the resistance R of a structure, and of the load effect S arepredicted with adequate models.
acceptable f
P R S P P < > ) (
Durind time value S and R changed and an be described using probabilistic distribution
functions. Using statistical methods and models it is possible to deternine the proability of
failure P
f .
The probability (Those value) is relative to a defined sevice life (lifetime) of
structures. Structure is safe if P
f
smaller then a prefdefined value that depends on the
importance of the building, the type of loss of performance taken nto account and the
potential cosequences C of failure. The risk is defined as a porbability P that failure will occur
multiplied by te consequences caused by the failure.
Risk=PC
Acceptable risk is social problem. The larger the consequences the smaller the accepted
prbability of failure will be. The desig load has a very small probability of exidence of about
10
-4
antil 10
-5
.To establish design loads statistical distribution of extrime loads having long
retern periods are used.
Chaange of climate paraameers, such as higher temperature, amount and intensity of
precipitation, different wind regime, will affect te durbility of materials (final&protective)
HERON, 2009.
Models for discribing the deterioration mechanisms must integrate knowledge form a wide
range of different disciplines, such as statics, statistics, materials technology, design,
construction and economy.
Experience form past used similar existing structure used to identify critical parameters to
formulated mathematical models in aim enshure a rational and coherent service life design.
Inificant deterioration machanisms are reinforcement corrosio and subsequently cracks and
spallings of concrete. Main causes of corrosion (with present of water) are chemical attacks,
alkali-aggregate reactions, and frezz-thaw bursting.
Mitchell
Prediction of durability (or service life) gives clearer view on extending service life, reducing
life-cycle and enhancing environmental sustainability. State of practice in design concrete
structure (CS) prediction of service life routinely is considered with oriented degree of
reliability. To achieve highest level of reliability and desired durability designers must used
developed mathematical models. Traditionally designers estimate service life using judgment
based on experience with similar structures in similar environments. The lack of experience
and no standard guidelines caused bed solution for some important structures. Low durability
of CS, especially in aggressive environments, conditions development of mathematical
models for prediction of the service life, or follow guidelines from codes. Recently all
professional association focused and active work on development guidelines and models for
designing of durability of CS. deterioration (degradation)
In [Michell] service-life models classified in three main categories: empirical, mechanistic
(physic-chemical), and semi-empirical. Empirical models based on previously observed
relationships among service life, concrete compositions, and exposure condition depend of
environmental conditions, without invoking and understanding of the scientific reasons for
thee relationships. This category includes neural network models. The physic-chemical
model provides predictions of service life based on mathematical descriptions of the
phenomena involved in concrete degradation, understanding of the microstructure of concrete
before and during degradation process, for instance. Semi-empirical models tend to use
simpler mathematical expressions then mechanistic one. Predictions are made using fitting
parameters that are calibrated on the basis of data on the performance in the field or in
laboratory of concrete.
Service-life prediction models may be probabilistic, when service-life expressed in the form
of probabilistic distribution functions. The quality of service life predictions depend of
capability of the models used and quality of the input data. Ensuring viability of appropriate
methods for characterization of concrete to provide data for the testing and use of models
Developing the ability to specify performance requirements for concrete Providing
guidelines for selection of limits for tests for relevant degradation mechanisms, and allowing
for scatter in test results. For performance tests use of some prescriptive tests may still be
necessary a limit on chloride content, for instance. In [Michell] indicates nine steps, including
service life predictions, that should be taken in the design and detailing of reinforced concrete
structures to achieve a required service life:
Step 1: Defining the problem (the type of structure, the required service life and the exposure
conditions) in the beginning of a project. He exposure conditions for individual
elements of the structure depend of natural, and imposed due to its use, environment.
The exposure conditions are likely to differ at different points on the surface (water
due to excessive deflection, thermal effects, i.e.). Each type of degradation involves:
transport of water and ions thru the concrete; reaction involving a volume change,
degradation of the internal structure of the concrete. Degradation may involve one or
more mechanical, chemical, thermal, and electrochemical processes.
Step 2: Proportioning the mixture, considering the surface, and providing for drainage. When
proportioning the concrete additives and chemical admixtures should be considered,
because can influence o service life (reduced permeability of concrete). Surface
treatment and overlays can increase service life. Drainage slope and camber must
design.
Step 3: Selection the reinforcement. Different level of protection (using stainless steel, epoxi-
coated steel reinforcement, cathodic protection, controlling the tensile stresses with
prestressing) can increase service life.
Step 4: Designing the cover. The quality and thickness of concrete caver over the
reinforcement one of the most important factor effecting on service life. Cover
deterioration and corrosion of the reinforcement can lead to reduced bond integrity
and spalling and delamination of cover.
Step 5: Controlling cracking. Early age cracking developed tensile stresses and causing
changes in the concrete material properties as is elastic modulus, tensile strength, and
early age creep. Construction joints and pour strips must be carefully located to
minimize restraint effects.
Step6: Using models in estimating service life. When designing for durability the many
factors is considered and usually iterative process performed. In each iteration, the
design parameters adjusted until an estimate (based of a model-based prediction)
service life made in step 6, is judged to be acceptable. Service-life modelling requires
an understanding of chemical reactions and transport processes within concrete, as
well as thermal, mechanical, and electrochemical effects. It is very important to
choose model for a specific application: the exposure conditions, validation model by
numerical methods, laboratory tests and field observations; and what assumption does
the model depend upon? Influence of variation in cover thickness, placing and
material variation tolerances, mixture proportions, curing and exposure conditions
need to investigate for important structures. In case when service life not meet or
exceed the required service life it will be necessary to return to Step 2, and repeat
subsequent step with some of the adjust design parameters.
Step 7: Selecting, in the design phase, appropriate procedures for quality assurance and
quality control of construction (control of locations of the reinforcement, periodic over
measurement before and concreting), duration and type of curing.
Step 8: Assuring quality construction. Provide effective measures of control.
Step 9: Developing a plan. For achieving durable structures in all phase of design,
construction, used, inspection and maintenance must provide adequate quality.
Lifetime model depend on the quality of condition model for material. Condition
model, i.e. the condition of material is described with following function:
Condition=start condition damage
Condition function, as % of undamaged (start condition c)
b
at c y ; a is rate of
deterioration, and b-is power constant (determined experimentally).
Reinforcement corrosion results in spalling of the concrete. To determine the risk of
corrosion of the reinforcement Ficks second low of diffudion has been used:
with: C - chloride penetration, D-diffusion coefficient, x-distance from he surface, t-
time.
Designing for durability is the process in which following assessments are made [Rendell, et
al.]: ZA POSTOJEE OBJEKTE
define the service life of the structure,
plan the finances of the project,
investigate the site,
identify,
mechanisms of attack that will cause material damage,
assess the rate of which material properties will deteriorate,
assign exposure classification, according EN 206,
select material and/or provide protection for achieving design service life,
ensure the system of control of material and construction process,
proposed an inspection programme