Engineering in Ancient Sri Lanka;

We have a very interesting story in Mahavamsa. Prior to construction of the Ruwan Vali saaya (Known as Mahathupa at that time), King Dutugamunu brought in Engineers to investigate how they would build the structure. After marking the boundary of Mahathupa, King Dutugamunu ordered top master engineers of the country to come to the palace. Five hundred master engineers came to see the King. King asked the first engineer How are you planning to build the Thupa? The first engineer replied I will use one wagon of sand every day. The King was not happy with this answer and rejected him. (Mahavamsa does not tell why the first engineer was rejected. The reason for the rejection of the first engineer was given in Mahavamsa Tika. According to Mahavamsa Tika, King Dutugamunu told the first engineer If you use one wagon of sand every day to mix cement, the Thupa would be a heap of sand and fall to the ground). The King asked the same question from the second master builder. The second builder stated that he would use half a wagon per day. The King rejected him as well. Similarly, King rejected builders who stated that they would use quarter wagon and one eighth of a wagon. Seeing Kings anxiety, one experienced master builder stated that he would crush the sand and sift it prior to use. That way he would have to use only one Ammana of sand per day. (One Ammana is equal to 700 handfuls). King accepted the last master builders proposal. King then asked the master Engineer Whats the shape and form of the Thupa?. The master Engineer took two bowls of water and poured one bowl into the other. When he was pouring water, bubbles were formed and rose to the surface. The engineer answered that the shape and form would be similar to the rising bubbles. King accepted the shape and form of bubbles as a model for the Thupa. (Bubbulakara).

Quality Control during construction of Ruwan Vali Saaya: During construction it is very important to use correct materials and correct proportions. We have another interesting story in Mahavamsa how quality control was done during construction of Ruwan Vali Saaya; "A bhikku who wanted to participate in the construction work to acquire merit for himself, brought a brick made of clay prepared by himself and gave it to a workman. The workman placed the brick without the knowledge of the overseer. When the overseer found out about the unauthorized brick, a dispute occurred. The King heard of the dispute and came to the site. The King questioned the workman who placed the unauthorized brick. The worker stated that a foreign bhikku gave the brick to him to be placed. The King sent people to find the foreign bhikku.

When Kings people found the bhikku, the King ordered his men to give Jasmine blossoms removed from Sri Maha Bodhi to the foreign bhikku". (Authors Note: This Mahavamsa story indicates strict quality control protocol at the site. It seems, each and every brick placed in the structure was accounted for by overseers or suprevisors). Back to Mahavamsa.. "Second bhikku also wanted to participate in the construction work. He found out the exact dimensions of bricks at the structure from a relative working at the site. He prepared a brick, similar to the bricks in the site and gave it to his relative to be placed in the Mahathupa. The relative placed the brick in the structure. When one of the overseers found out of the unauthorized brick, a dispute started. The King heard of the dispute and came to the site. The King asked the workman whether he could recognize the unauthorized brick. The worker said he could not. The King sent people to find the bhikku who gave the brick. When Kings men found the bhikku, the King ordered to give the bhikku garments". Bhikkus wanted to get merit by placing bricks made by themselves. This second bhikku was smarter. He built a brick that looked like other bricks. But the king was not very happy about it.

Stone Crafting:
Can we do something like this today?

No words can describe the detailed construction of Aukana. I have seen many ancient statues in stone but nothing come close to this.

Jethavana Largest Man Made Structure in the World:

Jethavana dwarfs the great pyramid of Egypt by size. Very few knows Jethavana has a foundation that is 250 ft deep. See the figure below. Detailed description of the Jethavana foundation structure is available in Sri Lankan archaelogical department and was published in 1950 AD as archaelogical cicular.

World's Largest Swimming Pool; It was stated in many Roman books that King Augustus Ceasar built a huge pool for himself. Though this pool does not exist today, Ath Pokuna of Anuradhapura dwarf's King Augustus Ceasar's pool. More importantly it still exists.

Glorious Ath Pokuna The two white figures at the other end are people. This is 155 meters in length and 52 meters in width. It would take Usain Bolt more than 15 seconds to run from one corner to other.

Exercise to students...Discuss the use of two pipes shown here. Why two?

Bisokotuwa: It is well accepted that largest reservoirs before 20th century was in Sri Lanka. Ancient Sinhalese was able to build these huge reservoirs due to a technical construction known as Bisokotuwa. It was this invention alone which permitted the Sinhalese to proceed boldly with the construction of reservoirs that still rank among the finest and greatest works of the kind in the world. Without some efficient means of regulating the discharge of the water through the sluices, the provision of reservoirs for storing water could never have extended beyond the minor tanks. (Ref: H. Parker, Ancient Ceylon)

Bisokotuwa allows water to be distributed in a regular manner without damaging the banks. Exercise: Discuss the workings of Bisokotiwa. I may not discuss Jaya ganga, Lowa maha paaya, kala Wewa, parakrama Samudra, Yodha wewa etc since that would fill a whole book.

Discovery of Steel:

Iron was discovered by man around 3,000 BC. Carbon was mixed to iron and heated to a very high temperature to obtain steel. Steel known as Wootz steel came to Europe from India thru Arabia. Arabs were using Damascus swords that were much stronger than any iron sword. But even before Indian furnaces, there was a large scale steel industry in Samanalawewa, Sri Lanka. Today world cannot exist without steel. This momentous discovery could be by ancient Sri Lankans. These steel furnaces in Samanalawewa was done using Monsoon winds. References for Early Steel Production in Samanalawewa, Sri Lanka: 1. Early iron and steel in Sri Lanka: a study of the Samanalawewa area, Gillian Juleff 2. Juleff, G. (1996). "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka".Nature 379 (3): 60 63. Bibcode 1996Natur.379...60J. doi:10.1038/379060a0. 3. Wayman, M L and Juleff, G (1999). "Crucible Steelmaking in Sri Lanka". Historical Metallurgy 33 (1): 26.

Mathematics in Ancient Sri Lanka:

Sri Lankan Contribution to Hindu Arabic Number System and Mathematics that Came along with it is not properly researched.

Brief Descrition of mathematics is based on Hindu- Arabic number system.

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Most important number (sunya, 0) was found by Brahmagupta of India in 626AD. Russian mathematician Michel Ostrogradski stated "It seems to me that this is the Largest Discovery after Writing (Michel Ostrogradski), Russian Mathematician (1,801 1,861 AD). Mathematics based on Indian number system is known as "Modus Indorum" in Europe during 12th century meaning method of the Indians. The first person to translate this method of the Indians was Leonardo of Pisa (No relation to Leonardo Davinci). In Liber Abaci he stated the following;

After my father's appointment by his homeland as state official in the customs house of Bugia for the Pisan merchants who thronged to it, he took charge; and in view of its future usefulness and convenience, had me in my boyhood come to him and there wanted me to devote myself to and be instructed in the study of calculation for some days. There, following my introduction, as a consequence of marvelous instruction in the art, to the nine digits of the Hindus, the knowledge of the art very much appealed to me before all others, and for it I realized that all its aspects were studied in Egypt, Syria, Greece, Sicily, and Provence, with their varying methods; and at these places thereafter, while on business. I pursued my study in depth and learned the give-and-take of disputation. But all this even, and the algorism, as well as the art of Pythagoras, I considered as almost a mistake in respect to the method of the Indians. (Modus Indorum). Therefore, embracing more stringently that method of the Hindus, and taking stricter pains in its study, while adding certain things from my own understanding and inserting also certain things from the niceties of Euclid's geometric art. I have striven to compose this book in its entirety as understandably as I could, dividing it into fifteen chapters. Almost everything which I have introduced I have displayed with exact proof, in order that those further seeking this knowledge, with its pre-eminent method, might be instructed, and further, in order that the Latin people might not be discovered to be without it, as they have been up to now. If I have perchance omitted anything more or less proper or necessary, I beg indulgence, since there is no one who is blameless and utterly provident in all things. The nine Indian figures are: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 With these nine figures, and with the sign 0 ... any number may be written. Leonardos goal was to have all common people learn this method. This dream of Leonardo had come true today. All literate people learn the nine figures and zero and computations with it while they are children. The art of Pythagoras that Leonardo referring to was not the famous Pythagoras theorem. It is a geometric method devised by Pythagoras to conduct addition, subtraction, multiplication and division". Reference: Sigler, L., Fibonaccis Liber Abaci, Springer, 2003.

Also there was Bishop of Syria Severus Sebokht (650 AD) who promoted Indian number system and mathematics. Bishop Severus Sebokht (650 AD)

"I shall not now speak of the knowledge of the Hindus, who are not Syriansof their subtle discoveries in the science of astronomy--discoveries even more ingenious than those of the Greeks and Babylonians--of their rational system of mathematics, or of their method of calculation which no words can praise strongly enough--I mean the system using nine symbols. If these things were known by the people who think they alone have mastered the sciences because they speak Greek they would perhaps be convinced, though a little late in the day, that other folks, not only Greeks, but men of a different tongue, know something as well as they." Reference: Revue de l'Orient Chretien by Franois Nau pp.327-338. (1929) What is this method of the Indians? It is none other than arithmetic and algebra that we use today. Arithmetic was known as Anka Ganita (mathematics of numbers) and algebra was known as Bija Ganita (Mathematics of seeds or grains). It should be mentioned here that Greeks also had arithmetic and algebra but they used Greek numbers such as , , , etc and we don't use Greek arithmetic and algebra today. But Greek geometry is still widely used. Who Built Arithmetic and Algebra?: There is no question that it was Greeks who built Geometry. But as I mentioned earlier Greek arithmetic and algebra are not used today. There are many Indian mathematicians who are responsible for the Hindu - Arabic number system and arithmetic and algebra. But two of them stands out. They are Brahmagupta and Aryabhatta.

Brahmagupta: (598 AD 670 AD):

Brahmagupta was the first to give rules of zero and negative numbers. Modern multiplication using Hindu Arabic number system was first discovered by Brahmagupta; The multiplicand is repeated like a string for cattle, as often as there are integrant portions in the multiplier and is repeatedly multiplied by them and the products are added together. It is multiplication. Or the multiplicand is repeated as many times as there are component parts in the multiplier. Brahmagupta Translated to English by H.T Colebrook, 1,817 AD (Thanks to Google, Colebrooks translation of Brahmagupta now available free of charge from Google books).

Brahmagupta then gives an example. 235 x 288 235 235 235 2 8 8 470 1880 1880 67680 Brahmagupta's Rules of Zero and Negative Numbers; The product of zero and negative or of zero and positive is zero. Product of two zeros is zero.Zero divided by zero is zero. Positive or negative divided by zero is a fraction with that for denominator; or zero divided by positive or negative is zero. The sum of zero and negative is negative; The sum of zero and positive is positive; The sum of two zeros is zero Negative taken from zero becomes positive; Positive taken from zero becomes negative. Negative less zero is negative, positive is positive, zero is zero Product of negative and negative is positive. Product of negative and positive is negative. Brahmagupta Brahsmasputha Siddhanta, Translated to English by H.T Colebrooke, 1,817 AD.

Aryabhatta (470 AD - 530 AD):

Is Aryabhatta a Sri Lankan?

Aryabhatta who lived before Brahmagupta wrote a very important book called Aryabhatiya. India's first satellite was named after Aryabhatta. Here are some quotes from Aryabhatta; Aryabhata in lemma 19 says the following: Lemma 19: The circle which intersects the east and west points and the two points in the meridian which are above and below the horizon by the amount of the observers latitude called the horizon of Lanka, on it the increase and decrease of day and night are measured. Here Aryabhata uses horizon of Lanka as his reference to measure the apogee and situate himself in the celestial sphere. Now the question is, if Aryabhatta is an Indian, why would he use Lanka as the point of measurement? In Lemma 18, he says the following? Lemma 18: As a man in a boat going forward sees a stationary object moving backward so at Lanka, a man sees the stationary asterisms moving backward in a straight line. Again, the movement of the celestial sphere or in this case the rotation of the earth that causes the diurnal motion is obtained using Lanka as a reference point. Aryabhatta has to be stationed in Lanka for this statement to be true. In Lemma 10, he says the following? Lemma 10: The cause of their rising and setting is due to the fact the circle of the asterisms together with the planets driven by the provector wind, constantly moves westwards at Lanka

This phrase was shown by some Indian scholars as non Sri Lankan origin of Aryabhata. Here Aryabhata indicates the wind is flowing towards Lanka due to the setting and rising of asterisms. If he was stationed in Lanka why would he say the wind is moving towards Lanka? This lemma indicates non Sri Lankan references of Aryabhatta. Sri Lankan number system that appears in inscriptions; There is a sign called kariha. Did that sign became zero?

Article by Ruwan Rajapakse