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2 Refractive Index
1.3 Group Velocity and Group Index 1.4 Magnetic Field, Irradiance and Poynting Vector 1.5 Snell's Law and Total Internal Reflection (TIR) 1.6 Fresnel's Equations 1.7 Multiple Interference and Optical Resonators 1.8 Goos-Hnchen Shift and Optical Tunneling 1.9 Temporal and Spatial Coherence
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Ex
Direction of Propagation
x z By z
An electromagnetic wave is a travelling wave which has time varying electric and magnetic fields which are perpendicular to each other and the direction of propagation, z.
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Ex = Eo cos(t kz + o )
propagation constant (wave number): phase:
k =/c
Ex
= t kz + 0
A plane EM wave travelling along z, has the same E x (or By) at any point in a given xy plane. All electric field vectors in a given xy plane are therefore in phase. The xy planes are of infinite extent in the x and y directions.
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Direction of propagation
E (r , t ) = E0 cos(t k r + 0 )
Wave vector
k
k r = kx x + k y y + kz z
r E(r,t) z
= t kz + o = constant
Phase velocity
v =
dz = = v dt k
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2E 2E 2E 2E + 2 + 2 = r 2 x 2 y z t
(5)
E r
Spherical wave (Wavefronts are spheres.) A E = c o s ( t k r ) (6) r Optical divergence: the angular separation of wavevectors on a given wavefront (spherical wave: 360 deg.)
z A perfect plane wave (a) A perfect spherical wave (b) Examples of possible EM waves ?1999 S O Kasap Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) A divergent beam (c)
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2wo O
(a)
Gaussian
(c)
r2
r 2w
(a) Wavefronts of a Gaussian light beam. (b) Light intensity across beam cross section. (c) Light irradiance (intensity) vs. radial distance r from beam axis (z).
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
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The stronger the interaction between the field and the dipoles, the slower the propagation of the wave. (relative permittivity) Phase velocity
v =
r o o
c = v
(1)
Refractive index
n =
(2)
r 1+ N
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http://cst-www.nrl.navy.mil/lattice/
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Permittivity due to different polarizations Molecular (polarized) + atomic + electronic Atomic (ionic or covalent) + electronic
Electronic Vacuum
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vg =
+
?
1 d = dk dk d
d = c = phase velocity dk
(1) (2)
v g (vacuum) =
Emax
Emax
v g = k = ( k ) 1
Wave packet
Two slightly different wavelength waves travelling in the same direction result in a wave packet that has an amplitude variation which travels at the group velocity.
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
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= vk = [
c 2 ][ ] n ( )
(3)
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Dispersive medium
v g ( medium ) = d c = dn dk n d
(approximation) Around 1300nm minimal Ng zero dispersion
1.49 1.48 1.47 1.46 1.45 1.44 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900
Ng n
v g ( medium ) =
c Ng
(4)
Wavelength (nm)
Group index
Ng
dn = n d
(5)
Refractive index n and the group index Ng of pure SiO2 (silica) glass as a function of wavelength.
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E x = vB y =
c By n
vt z
Area A
k
Propagation direction
A plane EM wave travelling along k crosses an area A at right angles to the direction of propagation. In time t, the energy in the cylindrical volume Avt (shown dashed) flows through A .
?1999 S.O. Kasap,
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Ex = vBy =
c By n
(1)
Poynting vector
electrical energy density = magnetic energy density (i.e. energy per unit volume) 1 1 2 o r Ex2 = By 2 2 o Total Energy:
S = v 2 0 r E B
(2)
Average irradiance (intensity)
(4)
0 r E x2
I = S average =
1 v o r Eo2 2
1 c o nEo2 = (1.33 103 )nEo2 2
(5) (6)
(3)
I = S average =
(instantaneous irradiance)
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S = v 2 0 r E B
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t
Refracted Light A
At kt Bt
Reflection
AB ' = v1t vt = 1 sin i sin r
t
z A B
i = r
n2 n1
i r
A B ki
i r
kr Br
t r
Refraction
AB ' = or v 1t v 2t = s in i s in t
(1)
Snells Law
s in i v n = 1 = 2 s in t v2 n1
Ai Ar
Incident Light
Bi
Reflected Light
(2)
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A light wave travelling in a medium with a greater refractive index (n1 > n2) suffers 29
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t
ki Incident light (a)
Evanescent wave
c c
i >c
TIR
(c)
Light wave travelling in a more dense medium strikes a less dense medium. Depending on the incidence angle with respect to c, which is determined by the ratio of the refractive indices, the wave may be transmitted (refracted) or reflected. (a) i < c (b) i = c (c) i > c and total internal reflection (TIR).
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) TIR: i > c sint > 1
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t : imaginary angle
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E t,//
t
z
Transmitted wave kt
Transverse electrical field (TE) Ei, , Er, , Et, : electrical field components perpendicular to z-direction
t=90
n2
E t, E r,
kr Reflected wave Incident wave
E t, Evanescent wave E r,
Reflected wave n1 > n 2
x into paper
E i,//
ki
i r
E i,// E i,
i r
Transverse magnetic field (TM) Ei,// , Er,// , Et,// : magnetic field components perpendicular to z-direction
E i,
Incident wave
E r,//
E r,//
(a) i < c then some of the wave is transmitted into the less dense medium. Some of the wave is reflected.
(b) i > c then the incident wave suffers total internal reflection. However, there is an evanescent wave at the surface of the medium.
Light wave travelling in a more dense medium strikes a less dense medium. The plane of incidence is the plane of the paper and is perpendicular to the flat interface between the two media. The electric field is normal to the direction of propagation . It can be resolved into perpendicular () and parallel (//) components 33
901?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) 37500
r = i n1sin1 = n2sin2
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Define: n = n2 / n1
r = Er 0, Ei 0, cos i [ n 2 sin 2 i ]1/ 2 = cos i + [ n 2 sin 2 i ]1/ 2
3/19/2009
r =
Er 0, Ei 0,
Er 0,// Ei 0,//
(1a) (1b)
r// =
(1a)
t =
Et 0, Ei 0,
Er 0,// Ei 0,//
(2a)
r// =
(2a)
Normal incidence
r// = r =
n1 n2 n1 + n2
(4)
t // =
Et 0,// Ei 0,//
(2b) (3)
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tan p =
r// + nt // = 1
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and
r + 1 = t
n2 n1
(5)
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General formula
c
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 (a)
p c
| r |
p
60
//
| r // |
120 180 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incidence angle, i
Incidence angle, i
Internal reflection: (a) Magnitude of the reflection coefficients r// and r vs. angle of incidence i for n1 = 1.44 and n2 = 1.00. The critical angle is 44? (b) The corresponding phase changes // and vs. incidence angle.
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Applications
Camera polarization filters (PL) Sunglasses Laser tubes (Brewster angle)
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r =
Er 0, Ei 0,
(1a)
r// =
Er 0,// Ei 0,//
(2a)
sin i >
n2 >n n1
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c
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 (a)
(6) (7)
p c
| r |
p
60
//
| r // |
120 180 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
i > c
Evanescent wave Attenuation coef. Penetration depth
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incidence angle, i
Incidence angle, i
Internal reflection: (a) Magnitude of the reflection coefficients r// and r vs. angle of incidence i for n1 = 1.44 and n2 = 1.00. The critical angle is 44? (b) The corresponding phase changes // and vs. incidence angle.
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
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[(
n1 2 2 ) sin i 1]1/ 2 n2
(9)
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= 1/ 2
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External reflection
r//
Incidence angle, i
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The reflection coefficients r// and r vs. angle of incidence i for n1 = 1.00 and n2 = 1.44.
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Normal incidence
I =
1 v r o E o2 2
| Ero,// |
2
(10)
Reflectance
R = R = R// = (
=| r |2 and R// = | Eio,// |2 =| r// |2
R =
| Ero, | | Eio, |
n1 n2 2 ) n1 + n2
(13)
(11)
(14)
(12)
2
T// =
R + T =1
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(15)
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Example 1.6.2 Reflection of light from a less dense medium (internal reflection)
A ray of light is traveling in a glass medium of n1 = 1.45 becomes incident on a less dense glass medium of n2 = 1.43. Suppose the free space wave length of the light ray is 1m. (a) What should the minimum incidence angle for TIR be? (b) What is the phase change in the reflected wave when i = 85 and i = 90 (c) What is the penetration depth of the evanescent wave into medium 2 when i = 85 and i = 90
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n1 A B
d n2
n3
A B C
1/4
2/4
Reflectance 1
1 n1
2 n2
1 n1
2 n2
0 330
(nm)
550
770
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Schematic illustration of the principle of the dielectric mirror with many low and high 54 refractive index layers and its reflectance.
LC optical resonators (narrow band around f0) Store energy Filtering light at certain frequencies (wavelengths) Used in laser, interference filter, and spectroscopic applications
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m( ) = L 2
Cavity mode:
M1 M2
m = 1, 2,3...
(1)
vm = m (
c ) = mv f ; 2L
v f = c / 2L
(2)
Lowest frequency = ?
m=1 m=2 Relative intensity 1
m
B L
(a)
A + B = A + Ar 2 exp( j 2 kL )
m=8
(b)
m - 1
m
(c)
m + 1
Ecavity = A + B + ... = A + Ar 2 exp( j2kL) + Ar 4 exp( j 4kL) + Ar6 exp( j6kL) + ...
Schematic illustration of the Fabry-Perot optical cavity and its properties. (a) Reflected waves interfere. (b) Only standing EM waves, modes, of certain wavelengths are allowed in the cavity. (c) Intensity vs. frequency for various modes. R is mirror reflectance57 and lower R means higher 901 37500 loss from the cavity.
Ecavity =
A 1 r exp( j 2kL)
2
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Ecavity =
I cavity = I max =
A 1 r exp( j 2kL)
2
2
Io (1 R ) + 4 R sin 2 (kL) km L = m
(3) (4)
I transmitted = I incident
(1 R ) 2 (1 R) 2 + 4 R sin 2 (kL)
(6)
Io ; (1 R) 2
Transmitted light
Finesse
Input light
Output light
vm =
vf F
F=
R1/ 2
1 R
(5)
to spectral width m
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Fabry-Perot etalon
m - 1
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z = 2 tan i
B
y
Penetration depth, Virtual reflecting plane
y
z
C B A
A
Incident light
i
z
n 1 > n2
n1 n2
d
i r
n1 > n2
The reflected light beam in total internal reflection appears to have been laterally shifted by an amount z at the interface.
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) In Ex. 1.6.2 n1=1.45, n2=1.43, inc. at 85 deg.
Incident light
Reflected light
=0.78m, => z ~ 18 m
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When medium B is thin (thickness d is small), the field penetrates to the BC interface and gives rise to an attenuated wave in medium C. The effect is the tunnelling of the incident beam in A through B to C.
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Frustrated total internal reflection Beam splitter Gap thickness and Refractive index
Reflected
Reflected light n2 n1
TIR
i > c
A Incident light
n1 Transmitted
i > c
C A
Incident light
(b)
(a) A light incident at the long face of a glass prism suffers TIR; the prism deflects the light. (b) Two prisms separated by a thin low refractive index film forming a beam-splitter cube. 65 The incident beam is split into two beams by FTIR.
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Perfect coherence:
any two points such as P and Q separated by any time interval are always correlated.
Amplitude
(a)
P Time
Perfect coherence: all points on the wave are predictable Temporal coherence
Measures the extent to which two points separated in time at a given location in space can be correlated
Amplitude
e.g.
l = ct
(b)
Time Field Space
spectral width = 1/t
589 nm of sodium lamp, v ~ 5 x 1011 Hz, t ~ 2 x 10-12 s = 2 ps He-Ne laser, v=1.5 x 109 Hz, l ~ 200 mm Laser devices have substantial coherence length, and therefore widely used in wave-interference studies and applications
(c)
Q Time
Amplitude
(a) A sine wave is perfectly coherent and contains a well-defined frequency o. (b) A finite wave train lasts for a duration t and has a length l. Its frequency spectrum extends over = 1/ t. It has a coherence time t and a coherence length l. (c) White light exhibits 67 practically no coherence.
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(a)
A B Source Time
(b)
P c Q
(c)
Space
An incoherent beam
(a) Two waves can only interfere over the time interval t. (b) Spatial coherence involves comparing the coherence of waves emitted from different locations on the source. 69 An (c) incoherent beam. 901 37500
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A. Fraunhofer Diffraction
Fraunhofer diffraction Fresnel diffraction
Light intensity pattern
Huygens-Fresnel principle
Incident plane wave
A secondary wave source Another new wavefront (diffracted)
Incident light beam: a plane wave Observation (detection): far away from the aperture
New wavefront
(a)
(b)
A light beam incident on a small circular aperture becomes diffracted and its light intensity pattern after passing through the aperture is a diffraction pattern with circular bright rings (called Airy rings). If the screen is far away from the aperture, this would be a Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) 901 37500
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(a) Huygens-Fresnel principles states that each point in the aperture becomes a source of secondary waves (spherical waves). The spherical wavefronts are separated by . The new wavefront is the envelope of the all these spherical wavefronts. (b) Another possible 72 wavefront occurs at an angle to the z-direction which is a diffracted wave.
(1) (2)
E ( ) = C
E ( ) =
b c
y=a y=0
(2)
Screen
y
y
Ce
1 j ka sin 2
a A
1 ka sin 2
y z
ysin
z =0
1 ka sin 2
(3)
= ky sin
(a)
Light intensity
(b)
m ; a
m = 1, 2, ...
(4)
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(a) The aperture is divided into N number of point sources each occupying y with amplitude y. (b) The intensity distribution in the received light at the screen far away 73 from the aperture: the diffraction pattern
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Rectangular aperture
1 C ' a sin( ka sin ) 2 ]2 = I (0) sinc 2 ( ); I ( ) = [ 1 ka sin 2
b a
S1 A2 S1 s S2 A1 I Screen L
1 = ka sin 2
Rayleigh criterion: two spots are resolvable when the principal max. of one diffraction pattern coincides with the min. of the other.
sin = 1.22
y
The rectangular aperture of dimensions a b on the left gives the diffraction pattern on the right.
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) Airy rings (circular aperture)
S2
sin = 1.22
(5)
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Resolution of imaging systems is limited by diffraction effects. As points S1 and S2 get closer, eventually the Airy disks overlap so much that the resolution is lost.
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
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B. Diffraction grating
Grating equation Bragg diffraction condition
d sin = m ;
One possible diffracted beam Single slit diffraction envelope
m = 0, 1, 2,...
y
(7)
dsin
S1
S1 s S2
m = -2
A1 Screen
Diffraction grating
Intensity (b )
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Resolution of imaging systems is limited by diffraction effects. As points S1 and S2 get closer, eventually the Airy disks overlap so much that the resolution is lost.
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
(a)
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pattern. There are 901 37500 distinct beams in certain directions (schematic)
(a) A diffraction grating with N slits in an opaque scree. (b) The diffracted light
d (sin m sin i ) = m ;
(not normal to the grating)
m = 0, 1, 2,...
(8)
Normal to face First order Normal to grating plane
First-order Zero-order
First-order
(a) Transmission grating (b) Reflection grating
(a) Ruled periodic parallel scratches on a glass serve as a transmission grating. (b) A reflection grating. An incident light beam results in various "diffracted" beams. The zero-order diffracted beam is the normal reflected beam with an angle of reflection equal to the angle of incidence.
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
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b = i
m 2a
2a sin b = m + _
m
b = arcsin
Number of grooves/mm and blazed angle determine the wavelength range of the grating.
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Other application
Enhancement of light extraction in LED, OLED structures Reduce total internal reflection Inhibit undesired direction
Nature, 2009
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