Doe 1 Jane Doe English 101 Research Paper-Final Draft Child Labor: The Great Need for its

Elimination Child labor is a complex international issue and its global reach affects both developed and developing countries, as well as a myriad of different industries. It is an emotionally charged issue that is capable of inciting very strong and adamant supporters on both sides of the debate. A lot of discourse, literature, and research point to the ill economic and social effects of abusive child labor. Because of the overwhelming international furor that the aforementioned literature have caused, varied international agencies and governments have joined together to lay down policies that call for the halt of exploitative child labor. Unfortunately, despite these efforts, abusive child labor still pervades the societies and economies of numerous third world countries, as well as that of the first world. In order to successfully halt the growth and practice of this despicable social and economic custom, it is necessary to understand the issue fully. This can be done through the critical study of child labor history, the evolution of its definition, and its causes and effects. After the careful study and analysis of this multi-faceted issue, successful, systematic and enforceable solutions for the eradication of exploitative child labor can be developed. Since the beginning of humankind, children have been working to help their families raise crops and livestock. Normal families in the old days found it necessary to have as many offspring as possible so that there would be more hands to help with the running of the household and the earning of the family livelihood. As societies became larger and more organized, with many specialized jobs that required greater mastery and assistance, children

Doe 2 began being employed as servants and apprentices. Child labor was not viewed as a despicable practice until the onset of the Industrial Revolution, during at which time the treatment of children grew to be especially exploitative. Children often worked long hours in dangerous factory conditions for very little money. Children were useful as laborers because their size allowed them to move in small spaces in factories or mines where adults could not fit, children were easier to manage and control and more importantly, children could be paid less than adults (Child Labor). The ease by which child workers could be molded, manipulated, abused and underpaid, most often than not with their own desperate parents consent, contributed to the rise of this type of inhumane labor. Despite this rise, different kinds of propaganda on varying mediums were circulated throughout society that sought to open peoples eyes to the horror and abuse that child laborers endured in their everyday lives. Walter I. Trattner indicates in his treatise that the transformation of attitudes about child labor was fueled in part by [the circulation and popularization of] images of children being sucked into the new factories, and partly by nascent perceptions that childhood should be a period of play and education instead of work (qtd. in Bachman 548). As the old adage goes, one gut-wrenching and powerful photograph is worth a thousand words. The enduring photographic images from the turn of the century were of children working in textile factories, seafood packaging, newspaper distribution and other work outside the home (Bachman 549). These photos were instrumental in educating the public to the horrific plight of the abused young laborers. Ultimately, this led to the persuasion of many citizens in the industrial world, some of whom became passionate anti-child labor advocates, that these exploitative practices should be mitigated. By the nineteenth century, reformers in Europe and the United States began to attempt instituting laws that seek to establish a minimum wage

Doe 3 for labor and minimal requirements for school attendance, (Child Labor) but these were not enforced. From that time until the present, anti-child labor advocates have coalesced to put some pressure on guilty and corrupt governments, industries and businesses. They accomplished this through the inception of conventions and policies that were backed by national and international organizations (some still present, others now defunct) such as the United States Child Labor Committee, United Nations Emergency Childrens Fund (UNICEF), and the International Labor Organization (ILO). Despite these efforts, the statistics that were released by ILO in 2001 were still staggeringly alarming: 250 million children, ranging in age from 5 to 14 are estimated to be laboring worldwide. Approximately 60% and 30% of these laboring children reside on the Asian and African continents, respectively . . . [and the] United States have as many as 800,000 children under the age of 18 working as migrant and seasonal farmworkers in California alone (qtd. in Pasztor, McFadden and Otis 612). These numbers are significant in establishing the extent of how much child labor has pervaded the global economy. In 2010, the United States Labor Department announced the addition of a dozen countries to a list of nations that utilize child/forced labor. Officials warned that the global economic crises could cause an upswing in the exploitation of children and other workers. [They identified] 128 export goods from 70 countries where child, forced labor or both are used ("A Dozen Nations"). The numbers and data speak for themselves; clearly, there is a great need to stop the ongoing spread of child labor and to eradicate its worst forms. It is important to first define child labor. International organizations such as UNICEF and ILO differentiate between child labor and child work. Child labor is an economic activity that is driven by child and family impoverishment, market forces, and political apathy (Pasztor, McFadden and Otis 612). In this activity, there is a larger focus on moneymaking, as opposed to

Doe 4 child learning and maturation. George defines that child work refers to adult-guided activities that focus on the childs growth and enculturation into the families and societies that they are a part [of] (qtd. in Pasztor, McFadden and Otis 612). Later, this child work definition will be expounded to include productive economic activities that child workers themselves clamor for. Child work [is defined] as developmental in nature (Pasztor, McFadden and Otis 612), and this encompasses activities that only seek to improve and nurture the childs natural abilities for his or her enrichment. Advocates are actively fighting and are most concerned with exploitative and abusive child laborthe worst of its kind. UNICEF and ILO are historically involved in determining different policies concerning child labor, such as the minimum age for labor and the naming the worst kinds of child labor, by hosting multiple international conventions over the years. One of the most important actions by the international organizations is the adoption of the Convention on the Rights of the Child by the United Nations General Assembly in 1989. The Convention singly enshrines the full range of civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights of children necessary to their survival, development and protection in society. Because of the connection between child rights and survival and development, virtually all of the Conventions articles apply to the distressing effects child labor. In particular, Article 32 recognizes the right of children to be protected from work that threatens their health, education, or moral development. Article 24 more explicitly recognizes the right of children to enjoy the highest standards of health, while Article 28 details the expectations that all children receive a compulsory and free primary education. (Narayan) This Convention single-handedly compiled over a centurys worth of work, research, and

Doe 5 conclusions drawn by anti-child labor advocates into a cohesive manifesto, which sought to actively challenge UN-member countries to observe and adopt its tenets. Another forwardthinking action by ILO is the founding of the International Program on the Elimination of Child Labor (IPEC) in 1992. The sole purpose of this program is to explore policies and programs to reduce child labor, to help countries improve existing national services (for example, statistical measurement, labor inspection and education) and to help implement interventions in specific industries (Bachman 550). This is a definite step forward in establishing that the ILO has taken a strong anti-child labor stance and that the organization has taken the child labor threat seriously. In 1999, the ILO took a great leap and unanimously called for a convention known as ILOs Worst Forms of Child Labor Convention No. 182 (Kovasevic 38) that named and defined the worst forms of child labor. This convention stressed [the need] for [necessary] immediate action to combat exploitation of children (Kovasevic 37). The ILO Convention in 1999 identified [these] worst forms of child labor . . . [which included] slavery and slavery-like work, prostitution, forced work and work that endangered a childs physical, mental or moral well-being [in both short and long term] (qtd. in Bachman 550). This paper will from here on now adhere to this ILO definition and refer to child labor as the practice of the aforementioned exploitative worst forms unless explicitly noted. After recognizing this definition, the leading causes for the prevalence of these worst forms of child labor that beleaguer society can be recognized. First, it is necessary to recognize that economics is one main reason for child labor. Before one can delve into this issue, it is imperative to understand the differences between the formal and informal economy. The formal economy consists of huge industries that are heavily regulated, and are usually large-scale operations that employ thousands of employees and also bring in a lot of revenue. The informal

Doe 6 economy is hidden and invisible. These are usually agriculture, services, small-scale manufacturing and other sectors that are hard to monitor, (Bachman 546) as well as illegitimate industries such as drug trafficking (Narayan). Exploitative child labor occurs in both the formal and informal economy, but is more practiced and rampant in the informal economies of developing countries. Since the informal economy makes up from one-third to two-thirds of the economies of developing nations and although it is much smaller in developed countries, it is still a large enough repository of child labor (Bachman 547). With that being said, children can [still] be found in the low-skill, low-tech and poorly regulated sectors of the formal economy(Bachman 545), although there are factors that minimize the childrens presence in that arena and end up pushing these child laborers to the mostly uncharted and unmonitored waters of the informal economy. These factors are the presence of adult trade unions and the relatively high education, skill and physical strength demanded by most formalsector employers (Bachman 546). Now that these have been defined, the issue of economics can be explored. Poverty plagues a good number of third-world citizens. This is one main reason why families opt to engage their young ones immediately into employment as soon as they are able to work. The childrens meager earnings [not only] help provide basic food and medicine for themselves and younger siblings, but also augments the pittance of a wage that their parents earn (Becker 15). The entire familys economic contribution is necessary for the familys survival. Clearly, child labor is primarily an economic choice which brings significant economic benefits to an unscrupulous and greedy minority of third world elites that take advantage of[the] economic desperation that many families face (Tsogas 368). Unfortunately, desperate poverty-stricken families have no means but to capitulate to the merchant class who

Doe 7 ultimately hold the survival of these poor families in their hands. These families economic plight is directly related to another cause of child labor prevalence, which is the lack of education and literacy among the poor, and the dearth of opportunities to actually attend school. Even though parents may want their children to remain in school and receive an education that can improve their future chances, they cannot afford the luxury of taking them out of the labor market. In essence, child labor is the result of a conflict between short-term parental economic interests and the long-term interests of the children (Becker 15). Parents are put between a rock and a hard place, wherein they are caught between wanting a brighter future for their children, but at the same time are pressed by the familys immediate living needs. Children trapped in [these difficult circumstances] fail to obtain the [prerequisite] education necessary to attain higher paying jobs once they [reach adulthood] (Narayan) which effectively eliminate their chances of breaking this self-perpetuating cycle of child labor and poverty (Narayan). These working childrens futures, and that of their progeny, then become forever tied to the tides of the menial labor market with no hope for escape. Another cause for rampant child labor and the on-going practice of hiring children by informal economy/cottage industry employers is the perceived economic benefit of cheap exploitative child labor to small businesses in developing countries. The 1996 ILO Convention documents one such example, [that of Indian] loom owners who hired children [because] . . . their margins are so thin that they would go out of business if they suddenly had to hire adults and pay adult salaries. Reducing child labor in this industry would therefore require either putting these loom owners out of business, restructuring industry price and sales patterns, or taking other measures to ensure that they received a greater

Doe 8 share of the retail price of a carpet. Fear of the price sensitivity of international demand was another reason why . . . exporters relied so heavily on the low expenses . . . [of] informal sector loom owners. (qtd. in Bachman 561) This circumstance is all too common in third world countries where the informal economy is more prevalent than the formal business sector. Business owners who seek to stay afloat and competitive in a saturated market, like that of the dime-a-dozen Indian loom owners, see no other choice but to exploit the millions of suffering children and put them to work in the most bleak and despicable conditions. Unenforceable national child labor laws are also a main cause of child labor prevalence. Different developing countries have been passing anti-child labor laws that intend to curb abuse. For example, India passes law after law that at first glance seems to deliver great blows against child exploitation and labor. As it turns out, these laws remain unenforced by the government. Current searches and raids do occur sporadically and for short periods, but they are cursory and ineffective, leaving both laborers and employers confident that government vigilance is temporary (Kovasevic 37). The lack of effort by law enforcement clearly shows how uncommitted some developing countries are in upholding the law. It is almost a joke to all those involved and the policies are therefore not accorded the respect that it deserves. Similarly, another cause of rampant child labor is the lack of follow through and funding for the financial support of the affected masses and the proposed alternative anti-child labor programs. Although governments pass legislation that call for the financial support of displaced child laborers, there is a glaring lack of concrete plans that actually stipulate funding and enforcement of rehabilitation and re-education programs for the children and their families. The abused children who labor in sweatshop conditions have no incentive and reason to abandon

Doe 9 their work due to this lack of support (Kovasevic 38). The scarcity of working alternatives leaves destitute families no choice but to readily accept bribes for labor and [then] employers will devise more effective [and creative] ways to hide their illicit workers (Kovasevic 38). Ultimately, all these wonderful plans and good intentions are rendered useless in light of the lack of funding. The destitute children and their families return to seeking whatever illegal employment they can to make ends meet. Lastly, lack of accountability between international organizations, governments and industries/businesses also drives the practice of exploitative child labor. An astounding number of nations have ratified ILO and UN conventions that practically seek to denounce and abolish the worst forms of child labor abuse and exploitation. Such cooperation is evidence of a vital international consensus on immediate action against child labor (Kovasevic 38). Despite this seemingly successful international cooperation, the aforementioned statistics stand to show that the practice of exploitative child labor, although condemned and despised, is still very much a part of the social and economic front of many third world countries. This is due partly to the absence of actual working frameworks and financial support of the international organizations themselves to these third world countries that desperately need their guidance and program funding for the enactment and enforcement of said noble conventions and declarations. Aside from the ILO and UN Conventions, the World Trade Organization (WTO) also joins the discourse of both the ILO and UN on the inclusion of labor standards in international trade agreements, which usually include anti-child labor stipulations. There is a marked disagreement between the members of these international organizations on how to successfully impose trade agreements that call for the inclusion of labor standards. It is highly debated whether a traderelated mechanism that could ultimately lead to trade sanctions (Tsogas 369) should be utilized

Doe 10 or if moral suasion (i.e. ILO) (Tsogas 369) should be practiced. Regardless, there has been a failure to bring at-risk child labor- practicing countries to task through this manner, and this failure is definitely hindering these countries from being accountable for their actions in regards to the halting of exploitative child labor within their borders. After the enumeration of the main causes of child labor pervasiveness in society, both its positive and negative effects can now be explored. It is true that when children are allowed to work, they are immediately placed in a possible endangering situation, but it is entirely likely that work, under capable adult guidance and in reasonable and non-abusive circumstances can contribute to their development, help to enhance their self-confidence and prepare them to play a responsible and meaningful role in their societies (Liebel 265). Different researchers have done corroborating research on this topic. Christopher Headys paper on The Effects of Child Work on Educational Achievement presents studies [that] show [how] poor schooling can actually be detrimental to a childs development, and that a limited amount of work may actually be beneficial for children (qtd. in Bachman 554). Jo Boydens report, The Impact of Childrens Activities (Work and School) on their Well-Being and Development, also suggests that if a child feels he or she is learning from work, the work itself is less likely to be less detrimental and possibly beneficial to the individual child (qtd. in Bachman 554). Self-organizing children in Latin America take this to another level as they come together to create their own labor unionlike groups. In his journal article, Manfred Liebel details how these groups refer back to the adult-sanctioned rights in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, wherein they seek to supplement these rights with their own positions and demands, such as the right to work. He explains that these children deem themselves competent enough to design their lives themselves (Liebel 266) and contribute to their societies. According to a working childrens

Doe 11 organization of Latin America and the Caribbeans statement that Liebel includes in his article, these children aim to be protagonists of [their own] life story as opposed to being passive social subjects (qtd. in Liebel 266). Aside from the right to work, these children formally stated at the first world meeting of children workers in India in 1996 that they yearn to be accorded the requisite respect and security for [themselves] and the work that [they] do in their societies (qtd. in Liebel 267). They pointed out that they want humane working conditions, so that [they will] have time for education and leisure (qtd. in Liebel 267). These children also desire to end discrimination and marginalization against them and their organizations. Undoubtedly, these coalitions of working children around the world demand control over their own destinies, and believe themselves to be deserving of equal stature to policy-making adults in terms of child labor mandates and positions. Clearly, even though there are positive effects of child work under certain circumstances, the negative health, social and economic effects are too detrimental to ignore. Christopher Headys article on The Effect of Child Labor on Learning Achievement points out that poor health is a serious negative consequence of child labor, representing a missed opportunity to enhance the productivity and future earnings of the future generation (qtd. in Rosati et al. 271). This serious negative consequence of child labor is particularly alarming since it is one that directly affects the chances of child laborers and their future offspring to fight this bleak fate. The research on the correlation of exploitative child labor to that of child laborers health has only been around in the past three decades or so, which correspond to the rise in international organization support for the anti-child labor cause at around the same time. A lot of this research has been limited in scope due to the many variables present in the child labor and health studies. Despite this obstacle, it is clear that identifying the health effects of child labor is essential

Doe 12 because it enables [the international organizations] policymakers to decide which types of child labor to target for eradication (Rosati et al. 271). The data presented by past studies is so important in creating the different convention frameworks and policies that govern how child labor is viewed and treated globally. Unquestionably, abusive child labor practices, such as that denounced by the UN and ILO, place children in the most dangerous conditions imaginable. Narayans article indicates that many forms of child labor thrust children into jobs that are as unsafe for children as they are for adults, such as mining, quarrying, agriculture, prostitution, and abusive domestic work wherein they develop numerous physical and psychological traumas. How can children be expected to successfully function and develop into contributing healthy adults in an environment where adults themselves are not safe? Finally, Graitcer and Lerer emphatically argue that a childs exposure to poor working conditions and health hazards may result in health consequences much later in life (qtd. in Rosati et al. 274). Aside from these terrible health burdens, another negative effect of child labor is its perpetuating of the vicious poverty cycle among the poor. This continues to increase the disparity between the economic classes, effectively widening the gap in terms of wealth and educational opportunities. This becomes more marked in developing countries where there are only a few elites who actually benefit from the industries revenues. Since there are no successful large-scale educational and economic mechanisms and programs set up to alleviate the poors burden, there is a lack of opportunities for the affected masses to break free of this cycle. The families visions for their future are very narrow-minded, undoubtedly driven by the desperation to afford the basic necessities such as food, shelter, and adequate clothing. As mentioned before, this desperation drives parents to put their young ones into employment as opposed to attending school. Gallis, and Harper, Marcus, and Moores articles reveal that low school attendance . . .

Doe 13 [causes] child laborers [to] grow up to be low wage-earning adults; as a result their offspring will also be compelled to work to supplement the familys income. In this way, poverty and child labor is passed from generation to generation (qtd. in Rosati et al. 271). The aforementioned abuses of poor child laborers do not only cripple their health and rob them of their chances to develop in every possible way, but also the chances of their future children and families as well, creating a series of broken generations, belonging to the bottom economic class that will not be able to rouse themselves from their hopeless plight. After delving deeper into the child labor issue, analyzing its many facets, and studying the current child labor discourse and the different proposals of leading researchers, a clearer picture is presented to the reader. This study leads one to deduce that a combination of the different solutions and proposals mentioned in the various journal articles and papers will be necessary for the development of successful, systematic and enforceable solutions for the eradication of exploitative child labor. First, it is necessary to find ways to finance these programs within national budgets, even before asking for international aid from the World Bank, ILO and UNICEF. A good start would be to recognize that . . . many other less developed nations typically spend disproportionally on programs that benefit . . . the elites (Becker 15). Diverting some of these funds for educational, health, and economic programs would reduce inequality and stimulate faster economic growth (Becker 15). To combat the excuse that poverty prevents destitute families from sending their children to school, it would be a great idea to institute the already successful Mexican program Progresa in countries that have high instances of exploitative child labor. Progresa gives parents a financial incentive to allow their children to attend school. Mothers whose children attend classes regularly, succeed in getting promoted, and get regular medical checkups are paid $25 by the government every month

Doe 14 (Becker 15). This payment is already a large percentage of a poor familys monthly income, which can be a major incentive for complying with the program. Progresa [also] tries to combat [the] tendency of poor families to favor education of older sons by paying a little more to families that keep teenage daughters enrolled (Becker 15). In just a few years, remarkable headway in the education of the poor children in this program was made. This is proof that Progresa can also be successful in the large scale in other regions and countries. Another solution would be to take into account the desire of children to work and learn a trade, especially those who have taken the time to self organize to fight for this right. [The children should be guaranteed] that nothing will be decided over their heads, that their agreement is always sought and that they are supported in being able to influence the decisions of adults in their immediate and wider environment. [They should be assured that] actions . . . must contribute to influence the living and working conditions of children directly. This can include . . . the improvement of working conditions, and the creation of alternative work patterns in which children can co-operate and act in self-determination. (Liebel 269) Alternative work patterns, as proposed above by Liebel, should be developed that can successfully integrate monitored and regulated apprenticeships with the basic educational standards of reading, writing, and mathematics. This allows willing children to have a mixed curriculum of both specialized training and basic education. Finally, it is also important to propose solutions directed at the global and national economic level. This can be achieved through the better synthesis and acceptance of WTO, ILO and UNICEF-approved trade agreements that include social clauses and provisions for fair labor practice that include the end of exploitative child labor practice. [This can] endeavor tohelp

Doe 15 workers redistribute the wealth created by transnational capital [as well as] create an enabling framework at the international level, so that collective bargaining and labor legislation at the national level can actually lead to higher standards of living for all (Tsogas 371). These are lofty and idealistic goals. Despite the harsh reality that these goals may be too ambitious to truly enact, fair labor and anti-child labor advocates must rise to the challenge and continue the fight to rid society of this social and economic blight. Undoubtedly, a main obstacle will be trying to get all member countries of these international organizations to join forces and take an active stand against the unjust labor practices by agreeing to actually work on implementing these proposals as soon as possible. By critically analyzing child labor history, the evolution of its definition, and its causes and effects, the multi-faceted practice of child labor is better understood. Only through this understanding can successful, systematic and enforceable solutions that can eradicate exploitative child labor come forth. Making the public aware of [this problem] helps promote efforts to combat child labor ("A Dozen Nations") and also enflames potential advocates who can join the fight to end this troubling economic and social dilemma.

Works Cited "A Dozen Nations Added to Child, Forced Labor List." Daily Texan. Daily Texan, 15 Dec. 2010: n.p. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 17 Oct. 2011. Bachman, S.L. "A New Economics Of Child Labor: Searching For Answers Behind The

Doe 16 Headlines." Journal Of International Affairs 53.2 (2000): 545-572. MasterFILE Premier. Web. 11 Nov. 2011. Becker, Gary. Bribe Third World Parents to Keep their Kids in School. Business Week. Business Week, 22 Nov. 1999: 15. Web. 30 Oct. 2011. Child Labor. History Channel Topics. History Channel Online, n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2011. Kovasevic, Natasa. "Child Slavery: Indias Self-Perpetuating Dilemma." Harvard International Review 29.2 (2007): 36-39. MasterFILE Premier. Web. 11 Nov. 2011. Liebel, Manfred. "Child Labour And The Contribution Of Working Children's Organisations In The Third World." International Review Of Education/ Internationale Zeitschrift Fr Erziehungswissenschaft 48.3/4 (2002): 265-270. Academic Search Premier. Web. 11 Nov. 2011. Narayan, Navin. "Stolen Childhoods: Tackling The Health Burdens Of Child Labor." Harvard International Review 19.4 (1997): n.p. MasterFILE Premier. Web. 11 Nov. 2011. Pasztor, Eileen Mayers, Emily Jean McFadden and Jack Otis. "Child Labor: A Forgotten Focus on Child Welfare." Child Welfare 80.5 (2001): 611-622. MasterFILE Premier. Web. 11 Nov. 2011. Rosati, Furio, et al. "The Health Impact of Child Labor in Developing Countries: Evidence From Cross-Country Data." American Journal Of Public Health 97.2 (2007): 271-275. MasterFILE Premier. Web. 11 Nov. 2011. Tsogas, George. Labour Standards in International Trade Agreements: An Assessment of the Arguments. International Journal of Human Resource Management 10.2 (1999): 351375. Cass Business School Research Paper. Web. 11 Nov. 2011.

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