41A: INVERSE SQUARE LAW FOR RADIATION

Aims
(1) Explore the inverse square law with thermal radiation;

Introduction
The inverse square law permeates the natural world, and hence is a central tenet of much of physics. Broadly speaking, if the inverse square law applies to some phenomenon, then the magnitude of the effect decreases as the square of the distance: if you double the distance from the source, the magnitude of the effect drops by a factor of four; if you double the distance again, the overall magnitude drops by a factor of sixteen; etc. The most common examples of the inverse square law are in the fields of gravitation (where the magnitude of the gravitational force between two masses varies as the inverse square of the distance between them) and electrostatics (where the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two charges varies as the square of the distance between them). Here, we are interested in how the intensity of themal radiation varies with distance from the source. It is interesting to note that in this example, a compelling argument justifying inverse square behaviour could be derived in terms of how the emitted thermal radiation is distributed over spherical shells of everincreasing radius around the source (each shell having a surface area of 4r2); an argument which has parallels in the field theories of gravitation and electromagnetism. It is of little wonder that physicists like spheres!

Procedure
You are provided with a Thermal Radiation Sensor (Pasco model TD-8553), which provides an output in millivolts proportional to the intensity of the detected thermal/infrared radiation; and a Stefan-Boltzmann Lamp (Pasco model RD-8555) as a source of thermal radiation. The Radiation Sensor has a spring-clip shutter, which can be opened and closed by sliding the shutter ring forward or back. During experiments, the shutter should be closed when measurements are not actively being taken. This helps reduce temperature shifts in the Sensor's thermopile reference, which might cause the response to drift. In between measurements, you should also shield the body of the Sensor from the Lamp, so that the temperature of the Sensor itself does not increase significantly. You are provided with a reflectivelycoated insulating foam sheet for this purpose. The Lamp is a high temperature source of thermal radiation, and the Lamp filament provides a good approximation to a point source when viewed "head on". Please note that the voltage into the Lamp has been preset to 10V, and should NOT be increased, as higher voltages may burn out the filament.

WARNING: the Lamp is HOT. Avoid contacting the Lamp with skin, clothes, paper, etc.!!!!

41A1

You will be exploring how the intensity of the thermal radiation emitted from the Lamp varies with distance from the Lamp. The equipment has been set up for you, after considering a few important questions. By looking at the setup, you should be able to justify some of the decisions which were made.
Align axes of filament and sensor

radiation sensor

Top View

metre ruler

d
radiation sensor zero point aligned with centre of filament Power Supply (10 V M AX!) metre ruler millivoltmeter

Figure 41.1: Equipment set-up for Procedure A

The zero-point of the metre ruler aligns with the centre of the Lamp filament, and the height of the Radiation Sensor is at the same level as the centre of the Lamp filament. In addition, the central axis of the Lamp aligns with the central axis of the Sensor. Why are these points important? Firstly, we need to determine the background or ambient level of thermal radiation. With the Lamp OFF, slide the sensor along the metre ruler, and record the Sensor output at 10cm intervals. Remember to close the shutter between measurements! Average your values to determine the ambient level of thermal radiation, and determine the uncertainty in your estimate. You will need to subtract this average ambient value from your measurements with the Lamp on in order to determine the contribution to your measurements from the Lamp alone. Turn on the power supply to illuminate the Lamp: remember that the Lamp is HOT and BRIGHT, so special care must be taken: do not touch or look directly at the Lamp! Also, the voltage to the Lamp should not exceed 10V, as discussed above. For this next part of the experiment, remember to make each reading quickly. Place the reflective and insulating heat shield between the Lamp and the Sensor between each reading, so that the temperature of the Sensor stays relatively constant. Why is it important that the Sensor casing not heat up significantly as you take your measurements? Measure the output from the Sensor every 0.5cm from 3cm to 5cm; every 1cm from 5cm to 10cm; every 2cm from 10cm to 20cm; every 5cm from 20cm to 50cm; and every 10cm from 50cm to 80cm. It's probably a good idea to set up a Table to record your data before you start: look ahead to see what other columns your Table should have. You can denote the Lamp-Sensor distance by d. Checkpoint 1: ask a demonstrator to review your work

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This non-linear spacing of measurements is a common one in experimental science. What is the significance of the "1, 2, 5 (, 10, 20, 50, )" scaling? [Hint: what are the logs of these numbers?] Science is fundamentally about the testing of ideas, or hypotheses. Our hypothesis here - the idea that we want to test scientifically - is that the intensity of thermal radiation due to the illuminated Lamp depends on the inverse square of distance from the Lamp. In mathematical terms, we would write: I = a/d 2 = ad2 (41.1)

where I is the intensity of radiation due to the illuminated Lamp, d is the distance between the Lamp and the Sensor, and a is some constant. We can write this in a form which is easier to appreciate by linearising the equation. For example, if we take the logarithms of both sides and simplify, we see that: log10(I ) = log10(ad2 ) = log10(a ) + log10(d2 ) = 2log10(d ) + log10(a ) Compare this last result to the simple formula for a straight line, y = mx + c. If you plot log10(I ) on the y-axis, against log10(d ) on the x-axis, what would you expect to find if our hypothesis is correct? Test the hypothesis of thermal radiation intensity depending on the inverse square of distance by plotting an appropriate graph. Remember to subtract the ambient thermal radiation from your measurements to get the contribution due to the Lamp! You are not required to include error bars in your graph, but if you have time you are certainly welcome to do so. On your graph, identify the region which is "near the lamp" (say, within 10cm) and the region which is "away from the lamp" (beyond 10cm from the filament). Are either or both of these regions linear? What does linearity indicate about the dependence of thermal radiation intensity on distance? Explain what is happening in the region near the lamp: in particular, are any of our assumptions breaking down there? (41.2)

Discussion and Conclusion

Complete your experimental write up with a summary discussion and conclusion, talking about what you have learned today! Checkpoint 2: ask a demonstrator to finish marking your experiment!

Extension work (optional, about an hour, +1 Checkpoint) Practice your uncertainty calculations and plotting by performing a proper uncertainty analysis on your graph (calculate the uncertainties and plot error bars, etc).

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