COLD-FORMED STEEL STRUCTURES: ADVANCES IN RESEARCH AND DESIGN

R. Landolfo1, F. M. Mazzolani2 and L. Fiorino3

ABSTRACT Since many years, the behaviour of metallic cold-formed thin-walled structures is one of the main research subject developed at the University of Naples Federico II. This activity has included theoretical and experimental investigations on the structural behaviour of members, connections as well as structural systems subjected as a whole to monotonic and cyclic loads. The results of some current research projects together with the most significant advances in calculation method and design are briefly summarised in this paper. Key Words: steel, cold-formed, thin-walled, numerical modelling, low-rise buildings, housing, codification. 1. INTRODUCTION During the last years, the use of lightweight Cold-Formed Steel (CFS) structural systems is increasing throughout the more industrialized Countries, such as USA [1,2], Canada [3], Australia [4] and some European Countries [5,6,7] where they have found a brilliant and diffused application in low-rise residential and commercial constructions. The reason for this growing application is mainly based on several advantages deriving from the utilization of CFS structures respect to the traditional construction materials (masonry, concrete, timber). The CFS members offer one of the highest load capacity-to-weight ratio among the various structural component currently on the market (also in comparison with hot-rolled steel members). The consequent lightweight of such components produces economy in production, transportation and handling, by reducing labour costs and worker fatigue.
Professor, Department of Construction and Mathematical Methods in Architecture, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy 2 Professor, Department of Structural Analysis and Design. University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy. 3 PhD. Student, Department of Structural Analysis and Design. University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy.
1

The variety of size and thickness of CFS profiles provides high flexibility in design. In addition, the CFS structural systems are characterized by high productivity, especially when innovative connection technology as press-joining, clinching and rosette-joining are used [8]. These peculiarities, together with the high and uniform quality of products, make the CFS system a structural typology particularly suitable for factory prefabrication. On the other hand, CFS sections are becoming considerably more slender and complex than hot-rolled shapes and, therefore, more prone to local, distortional, as well as coupled instability phenomena [9,10,11,12]. As a consequence of this trend, over the last two decades many theoretical and experimental studies have been addressed to capture the complex behaviour of these structures for improving the current calculation models and design codes [13,14,15,16]. The structural behaviour of CFS systems is one of the main research subject carried out in the last years at the University of Naples Federico II [17,18]. These activities cover many subjects including the bending behaviour of trapezoidal sheeting [19,20,21]; the flexural strength of CFS beams [22]; the interaction between local and lateral instability [23]; the seismic behaviour of CFS frames in seismic zones [24,25,26]; the contributing effect of cladding sandwich panels on the global structural behaviour of steel-framed buildings [27,28,29,30,31]. Nowadays, the studies on CFS structures carried out at the University of Naples are concentrated on two areas: the numerical modelling of CFS profiles [32] and the study on the seismic performance of lightweight CFS low-rise residential buildings [33,34,35]. The main objective of this paper is to provide a synthetic presentation of these research activities (Sections 2 and 3). In addiction the most significant developments and trends in the design of CFS structures are also given from the point of view of codification and application (Section 4 and 5). 2. NUMERICAL MODELLING OF COLD-FORMED STEEL C-SECTIONS The capability of Finite Element (FE) methods to correctly predict the physical response of thin-walled cold-formed structural members is strictly tied to the possibility of representing member imperfections within the numerical model. This obviously presumes an adequate knowledge of the physical phenomena, namely the availability of statistically significant numerical data about both geometric and mechanic imperfections. Besides, merely numerical problems, related to the strong non-linear response of buckling phenomena, are supposed to be solved. If these pre-conditions are satisfied, FE methods can represent a very attractive alternative to the direct physical experimentation, because of a significant reduction of research costs. However, a lot of issues still need to be addressed before FE methods can reach a level of maturity, enabling them to be systematically adopted in design and codification. Under these premises, a specific study on the main issues and results about the numerical modelling of the bending behaviour of thin-walled CFS lipped C-sections is in progress [32]. In particular, some numerical modelling issues, as the influence of geometric imperfections and the effect of the different modelling scheme for the loading system have been the preliminary objectives of the analyses. The investigation has been carried out by using available test results [22,23], which have been adopted as target reference results for calibrating the numerical models. In particular, the considered specimens were made of 3000 mm long back-to-back coupled profiles which had lipped C-sections defined, according to the Eurocode 3 classification criteria [36], as slender sections (class 4). The beams were simply supported with a span of

2800 mm and externally loaded by two forces applied at a distance of 500 mm from the beam mid-span. The beams were braced against lateral-torsional buckling both at the supports and at the loading points. Figure 1 illustrates the loading scheme of the beams (a) and the crosssection geometry of the selected specimens (b). The ABAQUS Version 6.2 finite element program has been used for the numerical analyses. Each beam has been meshed by means of quadrilateral shell element with four nodes and a reduced integration scheme (S4R). The first task of the study has been to investigate the feasibility of two alternative modelling schemes for the loading system. In a first modelling approach, an external node located at the load-actuator position (master joint) and two nodes placed on the beam (slave joints) have been constrained to move together with the same vertical displacement, thus simulating a two-points bending test, as shown in Figure 2a. In a second modelling scheme, the loading system has been physically introduced in the numerical model by means of a rigid body in perfect contact (no friction) with the beam, as illustrated in Figure 2b.

a - Loading scheme

b - Cross-sections

Fig. 1 - Geometry of selected specimen beams. In the second phase of the study, different modelling approaches for quantifying geometric imperfections have been considered. In fact, the introduction of geometric imperfections in numeric approaches involves the choice of the imperfection shape and the determination of its amplitude. In particular, the imperfection pattern has been assumed to be similar to the first-mode elastic critical deformed shape. The comparison between the numerical results and the available experimental data, give rise to the following out-put: (1) The plastic failure mechanism is different from the one expected on the basis of the elastic buckling pattern. In particular the members subject to elastic local buckling are failing according to coupled local, lateral-torsional and distortional mechanism type. (2) The geometric imperfections pattern along the beam length could significantly affect the computed plastic collapse mechanism and, then, the collapse load. Contrary, the maximum amplitude of geometric imperfections, for a given pattern, slightly affects the mechanical response (see Figure 3). (3) The difference between numerical and experimental ultimate loads (), can be plotted as a function of the numerical imperfection amplitude to thickness ratio (a / t) for all considered specimens, as shown in Figure 4. Based on the average curve it is possible to introduce an effective geometric imperfection amplitude (ae), which is defined as the one leading the average difference between the numerical and experimental response (av) equal to zero (av = 0 ae / t = 0.45). (4) The comparison between the results of the two different modelling schemes for the loading system indicates that no improvement is achieved using the most sophisticated FE model with the rigid body loading system. Thus, owing to greater simplicity and

numerical efficiency, it is suggested to use simple constraints to simulate the load application.

a - 1st model: constraint model

b 2nd model: rigid body model

Fig. 2 - Different modelling for the loading system.

Numerical

Fig. 3 - Numerical vs. experimental results: the effect of the geometric imperfections for the specimen P3.

Fig. 4 - Difference between numerical and experimental ultimate loads () as function of imperfection amplitude-tothickness ratio (a/t).

3. SEISMIC PERFORMANCE OF COLD-FORMED STEEL LIGHTWEIGHT LOWRISE BUILDINGS The research, entitled A theoretical and experimental study on the feasibility of using CFS members in seismic zones has been supported by the Italian Ministry of University and Research (MIUR) as part of a more comprehensive research program, devoted to study innovative steel structures for the seismic protection of buildings [33]. The main part of the research activity is the experimental evaluation of the deformation capacity for small buildings made of CFS framing. The experimental investigation is principally based on two identical stud shear wall sub-assemblages. One subassemblage has been tested under monotonic loading, the other has been submitted to a purposely developed cyclic loading history. The generic sub-assemblage is shown in Figure 5. In particular, Figure 5a illustrates the specimen without panels. Figure 5b shows the specimen sheathed with floor and wall panels. More details are given in [35]. The stud shear wall sub-assemblage specimens represent an appropriate structural model of a typical stick-built house, in which the lateral load resisting system is made of CFS frames laterally braced by panels. The generic specimen has been designed according to the Prescriptive Method For Residential Cold-Formed Steel Framing [37]. The generic wall framing, which is 2400 mm long and 2500 mm height, consisted of single top and bottom tracks, single intermediate studs and double back-to-back end studs, spaced 600 mm on centre. The floor framing consists of joists spaced 600mm on centre, with single span of 2000

mm. The foundation is simulated by two 280 x 380 mm (depth x width) rectangular concrete beams. The walls are connected to the foundation by intermediate shear anchors and purposely-designed steel hold-down connectors placed in correspondence to the end studs. Wall and floor external sheathings are made by wood-based panels (type 3 Oriented Strand Board (OSB) panels), whereas internal sheathings of the wall are made by gypsum-based panels (Gypsum WallBoard (GWB) panels). All the stud shear wall sub-assemblage components (members, panels and connections) are designed according to capacity design principles, in such a way to promote the development of the full shear strength of panel-towall framing connections.
Loading direction
joist track (U 260X40X1.00mm) bearing stiffener (C 100x50x10x1.00mm) stud track (U 100X40X1.00mm) Joist (C 260x40x10x1.50mm
1 250 x14 50 x18 .0 mm T ype 3 O SB (K R O NOPL Y b y K RO NO FR A NCE ) floo r s he athing

end stud (back-to-back coupled C 100x50x10x1.00mm) intermediate stud (C 100x50x10x1.00mm)

X-bracing stud track (U 100X40X1.00mm)

1 200 x25 00 x12 .5 mm GW B (P LA COL AS T b y B PB ITA LIA ) inte rio r wall s he athing

1 250 x25 00 x9 .0 mm T ype 3 O SB (K R O NOPL Y b y K RO NO FR A NCE ) e xte rio r wall s he athing

a - Specimen without sheathings

b - Specimen with wall and floor sheathings

Fig. 5 - Global 3D view of the generic sub-assemblage. Two types of load are uniformly applied to the floor: gravity and horizontal loads. In particular, the horizontal loads are applied following both monotonic and cyclic loading regime. The testing apparatus allowed the capacity of the horizontal floor panels to transmit loads to the vertical wall panels, up to failure of the vertical stud-to-panel connections. The loading procedure for the monotonic test has been articulated in two phases. In the first phase, in order to evaluate the permanent set at 2, 4, 6 and 10 mm displacements, the specimen has been unloaded at these values. In the second phase, the specimen has been monotonically loaded up to a displacement of 150 mm. In the cyclic test, the specimen has been subjected to a specific loading sequence based on the results of a numerical study on the probable deformation histories the structure would be subjected to during an actual earthquake [34]. In particular, 26 natural acceleration records have been used. They were recorded during the Lazio-Abruzzo (1984) and Umbro-Marchigiano (1997) earthquakes. Records have been chosen in such a way to cover all the soil types defined by Eurodode 8 [38]. From the examination of the obtained experimental results, the main conclusions can be summarised as follows: (1) All the components of this structural system can be designed according to capacity design principles, imposing the shear collapse in the panels-to-framing connections of the walls (the most ductile collapse mechanism). (2) In the monotonic test the panels-to-framing connections collapse mechanism was invariant during the increasing lateral displacement, whilst in the cyclic test some modifications (more brittle collapse mechanism) occurred after the peak lateral load

(3)

(4)

was achieved. These modifications produced significant strength degradation in the cyclic test, after the achievement of the peak load, which was stronger than the one observed during the monotonic test (see Figure 6). The lateral-load response for displacements lesser than the ones corresponding to the peak strength was very similar for both tested walls, whilst significant differences were observed for larger values of the displacement, as shown in Figure 7. This indicates a relatively more unreliable response in the unstable branch of the behavioural curve. The horizontal diaphragm can adequately transfer the horizontal loads to the vertical shear walls, without any appreciable damage.

Fig. 6 - Global shear vs. displacement response (Monotonic and cyclic behaviour curve)

Fig. 7 - Shear vs. displacement curves for wall 1 and wall 2.

4. NEW TREND IN CODIFICATION AND DESIGN The typical and complex structural behaviour of CFS structures requires special standards to be dedicated. In Europe, the design of the CFS structures is ruled by the Part 1.3 of Eurocode 3 (General rules Supplementary rules for cold formed thin gauge members and sheeting). Nowadays, for this Code the conversion phase from the validation version (ENV 1993-1-3 [39]) to the final version (EN 1993-1-3) is nearly finished. Thus the Code will be soon adopted in all Countries of European Community. In USA, special design standard have been developed for CFS structures since 1946 by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). Recently, based on the previous edition of the Specification for the design of cold-formed steel structural members [40] and the Standard for cold-formed structural members (S136-94) produced by Canadian Standard Association [41] the North American Specification has been published. This standard is adopted in the USA, Canada and Mexico. All cited codes allow the evaluation of the structural response of CFS members to be obtained through theoretical and experimental approaches. In particular, the design assisted by testing is more used for the CFS structures than other structural typologies. In fact, for these systems the experimental analysis frequently represents the most advantageous and, in some cases, the only reasonable approach. For this reason, detailed testing provisions concerning planning, execution, evaluation and documentation of tests are included in the design standards. The theoretical methods for the load bearing prediction included in the current design codes take into account local buckling phenomena, by means of an element approach. Following this methodology, all plate elements forming the cross section are considered as an

individual element. Each plate element is treated considering the stability theory of plates and the effective width concept for taking into account both elastic buckling phenomena and post-buckling effects. As far as the distortional buckling is concerned, the codified provisions, through the stiffener effectiveness evaluation, extend the methodologies originally proposed only for local instability phenomena to the case of distortional buckling of intermediate stiffened and edge stiffened elements (flange distortional buckling). Even if the current calculation models give comprehensive rules for the determination of effective section in the case of different load conditions, they require iterative calculations which become enough complicated for more complex shape of cross section. Moreover, this approach ignores the interaction between plate elements and does not provide guidance on distortional phenomena involving the transverse deformation of flange-to-web intersection line (lateral distortional buckling). Significant advances in technology of manufacture lead to use members made of higher strength steels and having more complex and thin cross-sections. As inevitable consequence, the design procedures must follow this development becoming more and more complex and cumbersome. These difficulties have stimulated the preparation of an ad hoc software to help the designers in their practical activities. This computer program, named ColdForm, represents the main issue of the book entitled Design of Metallic Cold-Formed Thin-Walled Members [42]. In particular, the ColdForm computer program was created in the late 1980s at University of Naples, as a research tool for comparing the provisions on thin-walled steel cross-sections given by CNR 10022 Italian code [43], European code (ECCS-TW7/1 [44]) and American code (AISI, 1986 [45]). Its first commercial version (ColdForm 2.0) was developed in 1993 with the sponsorship of ACAI (Italian Association of Steel Constructors). It was a Quick Basic version with a Windows-like appearance, which only allowed the checking of CFS cross-sections according to Eurocode 3 provisions. The present release (ColdForm 3.0 or ColdForm 2001) is a Visual Basic version fully complying with Windows standards, as shown in Figure 8. In particular, Figure 8b shows the ColdForm window, in witch the Geometrical characteristic output box appears. Figure 8c presents the evaluated resistance window in the case of Axial compression together with the relevant Effective sections window, while Figure 8d illustrates the check for Combined compression and bending window. Finally, the tabs in the Internal actions window are shown in Figure 8e. This version allows the analysis of both cold-formed steel members (according to ENV 1993-1-3 [39] and AISI 1996 [40] provisions) and aluminium members (according to ENV 1999-1-1 [46] provisions). The latest trend is to move towards approaches based on the evaluation of elastic buckling load through a whole section analysis. In fact, different user-friendly numerical tools (CU-FSM [47], THIN-WALL [48]), able to capture the elastic buckling load of the whole section through the Finite Strip Method (FSM), are currently available for designers. According to this approach and following the direct strength method [49], the nominal strength can be directly determined starting from the values of elastic buckling load and yield load using appropriate strength curves. This procedure has several advantages: (1) the reliability of the method is shown to be comparable to the current specifications [49,50,51,52]; (2) the interactions between the plate elements are taken into account; (3) all the buckling phenomena (local, distortional and global) are considered; (4) the calculations are very simple and do not require iterations, also in the case of sections having complex shapes for which the current specifications do not provide provisions; (5) the finite strip analyses provide a simple approach also when the CFS members interact with other materials or constructive components, as in the case of purlins stabilised by cladding or wall studs stabilised by sheathings [53]. As consequence of these advantages, the inclusion of whole

section and direct strength approaches as alternative design procedures in design standards should be strongly considered. In reality, the possibility of using numerical procedures is given in the final version of prEN 1993-1-3 [54]. However, further investigation on the new methodology appears to be necessary, as shown in [51,55]. In particular, future research including studies on: (1) the definition of the applicability field in terms of cross-section shape and dimension limitations; (2) the applicability and reliability of the method in the case of members subjected to combined bending and axial load or bending and shear; (3) the possibility to apply this approach for members with significant shift of the effective centroid in the post-buckling regime.

aThe cover of the book including ColdForm 2001.

bThe ColdForm window.

cEvaluated resistence and Effective section windows for Axial compression.

dCombined compression and bending window.

eInternal actions windows.

Fig. 8 ColdForm 2001 computer program.

5. FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS Further studies representing the natural extension of the current research activities on the behaviour of CFS structures have been planned at the University of Naples. The preliminary calibration study on the numerical modelling of CFS members presented in Section 2 will be used as a basis for a wide numerical study of the bending behaviour of C-sections. In particular, the reliability of the codified analysis methodologies will be investigated, with systematic variation of the size of the edge-stiffening lip. The ultimate objective is to gain an insight into current available design methodologies and possibly improve them. In fact, as discussed in Section 4, current codified provisions often present systematic error in prediction the load bearing capacity of such type of sections because the web-flange interaction in the distortional failure mode is neglected. The complex behaviour of CFS lightweight low-rise buildings laterally braced by panels under seismic actions requires the setting-up of an additional research activity aiming at the development of useful and practical analysis and design methodologies. Consequently, on the basis of the results coming from the experimental studies illustrated in Section 3, the next research activity will be articulated in the following two main phases: (1) development of reliable mechanical models, in order to capture the complex hysteresis response of shear walls stud-panels systems; (2) evaluation of the deformation demand for stud shear walls systems, on the basis of a realistic and sufficiently wide database of acceleration records. The development of the first phase of the research will benefit of the long experience that has been matured [56,57,58] in both the modelling of the hysteresis behaviour of single structural components and studying its influence on the global response of the structure. The definition of the deformation demand to small buildings made of the stick-built construction system represents the scope of the second phase of this research. It will be carried out according to the suggestions given in the document FEMA 350 [59]. It is deemed important to emphasise the need to perform an analytical-numerical study aiming at evaluating the deformation demand to steel stud shear walls systems. In fact, such a structural system exhibits a peculiar hysteresis behaviour, with a strong pinching of hysteresis loops, which reduces the energy absorption capacity. 6. REFERENCES [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Pekoz, T., Possible future developments in the design and application of cold-formed steel. Keynote lecture. In Proceedings of the 4th International conference Light-weight steel and aluminium structures (ICSAS99), Espoo, Finland, 1999. Yu, W.W., Cold Formed Design (3rd Edition). John Wiley & Sons. New York, 2000. Schuster, R.M., Residential applications of cold-formed steel members in North America. In Proceedings of the 5th International Structural Stability Research Concilium SSRC. Chicago, 1996. Gad, E.F., Chandler, A.M., Duffield and C.F., Stark, G., Lateral behaviour of plasterboard-clad residential steel frames. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, No.125(1): 32-39, 1999. Burstrand, H., Ligth-gauge steel framing leads the way to an increased productivity for residential housing. Journal of constructional steel research, Elsevier, No.46(1-3): Paper No.213, 1998. Davies, J.M., Light gauge steel framing for housing construction. In Proceedings of the 2nd International conference on thin-walled structures, Singapore, 1998.

[7] [8] [9]

[10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22]

[23] [24]

Lawson, R.M. and Ogden, R.G., Recent developments in the light steel housing in the UK. In Proceedings of the 9th North steel conference of construction institute, Helsinki, 2001. Di Lorenzo, G. and Landolfo, R., Shear experimental response of new connecting systems for cold-formed structures. Journal of constructional steel research, Elsevier, No.60: 561-579, 2004. Shafer, B.W. and Pekoz, T., Local and distortional buckling of cold-formed steel members with edge stiffened flanges. In Proceedings of the 4th International conference Light-weight steel and aluminium structures (ICSAS99). Espoo, Finland, 1999. Kesti, J. and Davies, J.M., Local buckling of thin-walled short columns. Thin-walled structures, Elsevier, No.34(2): 115-134, 1999. Young, B. and Rasmussen, K.J.L., Local, distortional, flexural and flexural-torsional buckling of thin-walled columns, In Proceedings of the 4th International conference Light-weight steel and aluminium structures (ICSAS99). Espoo, Finland, 1999. Landolfo, R., Coupled instabilities in non linear materials. In Proceeding of the 3rd International conferences on coupled instabilities in metal structures (CISMS 2000), Lisbon, 2000. Rondal, J., Cold formed steel members and structures general report. Journal of constructional steel research, Elsevier, No.55: 155-158, 2000. Davies, J.M., Recent research advances in cold-formed steel structures. Journal of constructional steel research, Elsevier, No.55: 267-288, 2000. Hancock, G.J., Cold-formed steel structures. Journal of constructional steel research, Elsevier, No.59: 473-487, 2003. Landolfo, R., Advances in Italian cold-formed steel structures research. In Proceedings of the International workshop on thin-walled structures, Loughborough, UK, 2004. Mazzolani, F.M., Thin-walled metal constructions: research, design and codification. In Proceeding of the 50th Anniversary conference of SSRC, Bethlehem, 1994. Mazzolani, F.M., Cold-formed thin-walled constructions: recent developments. In Proceedings of the Eurosteel 95, Atene, 1995. Landolfo, R. and Mazzolani, F.M., Behaviour of 3rd generation trapezoidal steel sheetings. In Proceedings of the International workshop needs in testing metals held by RILEM, Naples, 1990. Landolfo, R. and Mazzolani, F.M., Ultimate behaviour of trapezoidal steel sheets in bending. In Proceedings of the 12th International specialty conference on cold-formed steel structures, University of Missuri-Rolla, 1994. De Martino, A., Ghersi, A., Landolfo, R. and Mazzolani, F.M., Bending behaviour of long-span steel sheeting: testing and simulation. In Proceedings of the International conference Light-weight steel and aluminium structures (ICSAS91), Singapore, 1991. De Martino, A., Ghersi, A., Landolfo, R. and Mazzolani, F.M., Calibration of a bending model for cold-formed sections. In Proceedings of the 11th International specialty conference on cold-formed steel structures, University of Missuri-Rolla, 1992. Ghersi, A., Landolfo, R. and Mazzolani, F.M., Buckling modes of double channel cold-formed beams. Thin-Walled Structures, Elsevier, No.19, 1994. Calderoni, B., De Martino, A., Ghersi, A. and Landolfo, R., On the seismic resistance of light gauge steel frames. In Proceedings of the 1st International conference on the Behaviour of steel structures in seismic areas (STESSA 94), Timisoara, Romania, 1994.

[25]

[26]

[27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33]

[34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41]

Calderoni, B., De Martino, A., Ghersi, A. and Landolfo, R., Influence of local buckling on the global seismic performance of light gauge portal frame. In Proceedings of the 2nd International conference on the Behaviour of steel structures in seismic areas (STESSA 97), Kyoto, 1997. Calderoni, B., De Martino, A., Fiorino, L. and Formisano, A., Behavior of coldformed thin-gauge steel beams under cyclic loading: experimental investigation. In proceedings of the XI Congresso Nazionale Lingegneria Sismica in Italia (ANIDIS 2004), Genova, 2004. De Matteis, G., Landolfo, R. and Mazzolani, F.M., Dynamic response of infilled steel frames. In Proceedings of the XI European conference on earthquake engineering (ECEE98), Paris, 1998. De Matteis, G. and Landolfo, R., Structural behaviour of sandwich panel shear wall: an experimental analysis, Material and structures, No.32, 1999. De Matteis, G. and Landolfo, R., Mechanical fasteners for cladding sandwich panel: interpretative models for shear behaviour, Thin-walled structures, Elsevier, No.35(1), 1999. De Matteis, G. and Landolfo, R., Modelling of lightweight shear diaphragms for dynamic analysis, Journal of constructional steel research, Elsevier, No.53, 2000. De Matteis, G. and Landolfo, R., Diaphragm action of sandwich panels in pin-jointed steel structures: a seismic study, Journal of earthquake engineering, Elsevier, No.4(3), 2000. Della Corte, G., De Martino, A., Fiorino, L. and Landolfo, R., Numerical modelling of thin-walled cold-formed steel C-sections in bending. In Proceedings of Advances in Structures Steel, Concrete, Composite and Aluminium (ASSCCA '03). Sydney. 2003. Della Corte, G., Fiorino, L., Landolfo, R. and Di Lorenzo, G., Seismic performance of steel stud shear walls: planning of a testing program. In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Behaviour of Steel Structures in Seismic Areas (STESSA 2003), Naples, 2003. Fiorino, L., Seismic Behavior of Sheathed Cold-Formed Steel Stud Shear Walls: An Experimental Investigation. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Structural Analysis and Design, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, 2003. Fiorino, L., Della Corte, G. and Landolfo, R., An experimental study on seismic behavior of sheathed cold-formed steel stud shear walls. In Proceedings of the XI Congresso Nazionale Lingegneria Sismica in Italia (ANIDIS 2004), Genova, 2004. ENV 1993-1-1, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings. CEN (European Committee for Standardization), Bruxelles,1996. NASFA, Prescriptive Method For Residential Cold-Formed Steel Framing (Year 2000 Edition). NASFA (North American Steel Framing Alliance). Lexington, KY, USA, 2000. prEN 1998-1, Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance Part 1: General rules Seismic actions and rules for buildings. CEN (European Committee for Standardization). Bruxelles. (final draft December 2003). ENV 1993-1-3, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures Part 1-3: General rules Supplementary rules for cold formed thin gauge members and sheeting. CEN (European Committee for Standardization), Bruxelles, 1996. AISI, Cold-Formed Steel Design manual. AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute), Washington, DC, 1996. Canadian Standard Association, Cold formed steel structural members, S136-94, Toronto, 1994.

[42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] [56] [57]

[58] [59]

Ghersi, A., Landolfo, R. and Mazzolani, Design of metallic cold-formed thin-walled members, E & FN Spon, London, 2001. CNR 10022, Profilati di acciaio formati a freddo Istruzioni per limpiego nelle costruzioni, 1984. ECCS, European recommendations for the design of light gauge steel members, ECCS-TWG 7/1, Final draft, 1986. AISI, Specification for the design of cold-formed steel structural members. AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute), Washington, DC, 1986. ENV 1999-1-1, Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures - Part 1-1: General rules. CEN (European Committee for Standardization), Bruxelles,1998. CU-FSM: Cornell University Finite strip method. Software e tutorials. http://www.ce.jhu.edu/bschafer/cufsm/index.htm. Papangelis, J.P. and Hancock, G.J., Computer analysis of thin-walled structural members. Computer and structures, Elsevier, No.56 (1), 1995. Schafer, B.W. and Pekoz, T., Direct strength prediction of cold-formed steel members using numerical elastic buckling solution. In Proceedings of the 14th International specialty conference on cold-formed steel structures, 1998. Schafer, B.W., Local, distortional, and Euler buckling in thin-walled columns. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, No.128(3): 289-299, 2002. Schafer, B.W., Progress on the direct strength method. 16th International specialty conference on cold-formed steel structures, Orlando, Florida, 2002. Quispe, L. and Hancock, G.J., Direct strength method for the design of purlins. 16th International specialty conference on cold-formed steel structures, Orlando, Florida, 2002. Schafer, B.W. and Hiriyur, B., Analysis of sheathed cold-formed steel wall stud. 16th International specialty conference on cold-formed steel structures, Orlando, Florida, 2002. prENV 1993-1-3, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures Part 1-3: General rules Supplementary rules for cold formed thin gauge members and sheeting. CEN (European Committee for Standardization), Bruxelles, (final draft 27 sept. 2002). Schafer, B.W., Advances in direct strength design of thin-gauge members. In Proceedings of Advances in Structures Steel, Concrete, Composite and Aluminium (ASSCCA '03). Sydney. 2003. Della Corte, G., De Matteis, G. and Landolfo, R., A mathematical model interpreting the cyclic behaviour of steel beam-to-column joints. In Proceedings of the XVII CTA Congress, Naples, 1999. Della Corte, G., De Matteis, G. and Landolfo, R., Influence of connection modeling on seismic response of moment resisting steel frames. In F.M. Mazzolani (ed.), Moment resistant connections of steel building frames in seismic areas. London: E & FN SPON, 485-512, 2000. Della Corte, G., De Matteis, G., Landolfo, R. and Mazzolani, F.M., Seismic analysis of MR steel frames based on refined hysteretic models of connections. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, Elsevier, No.58, 2002. FEMA 350, Seismic Design Criteria for New Moment-Resisting Steel Frame Construction, Report n. 350, FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency), 2001.