Lecture 8 Vibrations

Copyright Ren Barrientos Page 1
VIBRATIONS AND PERIODIC PHENOMENA

Lecture 8
Introduction
What do the following systems have in common?

(a) (b) (c) (d)
Clearly the first three are mechanical in nature. They are composed of springs, strings, and masses. The last
one, on the other hand, is an electrical system with no moving parts. What makes them members of the same
family is the mathematical equation that governs their behavior; all these systems obey a second order
differential equation of the form
o
2
ii
+o
1
i
+o
0
= (t); (t
0
) = y
0
,
i
(t
0
) = y
1

which, as you shall see, often results in periodic motion. Periodic phenomena are central to much of science
and manifest themselves in a myriad of ways: your heart beats in a relatively periodic way somewhere
between 60 and 80 beats per minute depending on your health and age. The Earth revolves around the sun once
approximately every 365.25 days
1
and about its axis once every 24 hours. Even the tiny particles that
constitute matter behave in periodic ways that give rise to their chemical and physical properties.

Structures, such as hanging bridges and buildings, oscillate under the influence of natures forces. Electrical
circuits exhibit periodic phenomena as well. In this and the next lecture, we study the mathematics of
vibrations in the context of simple electromechanical systems.
Some of the language used to describe periodic motion is borrowed from circular motion so we should birelfy
discuss it.
Uniform circular motion describes the motion of a point along a circle in such a way that its angular speed is
constant. We define the average angular speed as the ratio of the change in the central angle to the time it
takes for that change to take place:
m =
0
t

when this speed is remains constant for arbitrary periods of time t, we call it uniform circular motion and it is
characterized by this constant angular speed .

1
This is an average time. That is why we have the leap year every four years.
Earth-Sun: I = S6S.2S uays
Earth: I = 24 houis Human heart: = 7u _S bpm
s
Front view
:
r
t
1

t
2

:
0

Side view
mg
P
0
:
Simple
Pendulum
E
R
L
C
Electric
circuit
Spring-mass
system
m
k
Shock
absorber
m
F

A point on the rim also has a linear velocity u which is defined as lim
At-0
rt where the vector r is the
points position vector relative to the circles center. This velocity is not constant because it is always changing
its direction. However, if the point moves uniformly the magnitude |u| remains constant. Hence, uniform
circular motion also means that that a point on the rim moves with constant linear speed : given by
: = lim
At-0
s
t
= constont
where s is a small arc along the circle. Periodic motion is characterized by a period and a frequency, defined
by the time it takes to complete one revolution. Say it takes I seconds to do it; then we call I the period of
rotation and its basic unit is the second. Since this is the time it takes for one cycle, we also say that the period
is so many seconds per cycle.
One cycle corresponds to a rotation by 2n radians. Thus, if it takes I seconds to complete this cycle, the angular
speed is

This is an important relation which you should commit to memory.
The frequency of rotation refers to the number of cycles per second and its basic unit is the Hertz
2
.
Therefore,
=
1
T

These are the fundamental relations that we use to describe uniform circular motion and which will be used to
describe any other type of periodic motion as well:
Variable Unit Symbol Important relation
Period second (sec) I
Frequency Hertz (Hz) =
1
I

Angular speed rad/sec =
2n
I
= 2n

Example 1 A rotating disk completes 1u revolutions in 4 seconds. What are (a) its period, (b) its frequency,
and (c) its angular speed?
Solution
(a) Since it completes 1u revolutions in 4 seconds, its period is 4 sec1u iev or T = . 4 se. We
could also say that the period is 2S seconds per revolution, but it is understood that we are referring
to one revolution when we use the term period.
(b) The frequency is = 1I. Thus, = 2. 5 Hz or 2.S cycles per second.
(c) The angular speed is 2n = 15. 71 radse.
We will also refer to the angular speed as angular frequency or circular frequency.
Spring-mass Systems
A spring-mass system consists of an block of mass m attached to a secured spring (coil) and free to move either
vertically or horizontally, as shown below. The differential equation governing either system is the same so
either one serves the purpose of illustrating the effect restoring forces, which are responsible for forcing the
system back to equilibrium.

2
Named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz 1857 1894
m =
2a
T
radse

Vertical spring-mass system Horizontal spring-mass system

Below are identified some of the forces at play. Friction and drag always oppose motion and are not shown in
the figure.

The free-body force diagram on the left show that the force due to gravity does not come into play for the horizontal system
because the normal force N and gravitational force mg cancel out. Therefore, the only forces that accelerates the block in
this case are the restoring force F
x
due to the spring, frictional and drag forces, and perhaps other external agents. On the
other hand, the vertical block is accelerated by the combined effect of the force of gravity and the restoring force. The nature
of the springs restoring force will be discussed below.
At first glance it is very non-intuitive that the same differential equation should govern both the vertical and the
horizontal systems. After all, gravity plays an active role in the vertical system whereas it is cancelled by the
normal force N (see figure) exerted by the table on the block in the horizontal one. Nevertheless, as we will
find out, these two systems are mathematically identical.
In order to study the dynamics of this problem, we need to identify the nature of all forces at play.
The Coil
Everyone is familiar with the length-preserving property of coils such as the ones used in shock absorbers for
example. We will use the term spring to refer to devices which can be both stretched and compressed and
which have the property of restoring themselves to their original length when disturbed away from it.
Robert Hooke
3
studied the properties of springs and determined that, as long as they are not stretched too much
and are operating under normal conditions
4
, the force with which they pull or push back is proportional to the
amount by which its length has changed relative to its natural state.
If the springs natural length is l
0
and it is stretched by an amount l then the magnitude of the force F
s
with
which it pulls back is given by

where k is a constant called Hookes constant, also called the spring constant, whose unit is the lb/ft in the
English system or Newton/meter in the SI system. In order to stress the fact that the force always acts to restore
the coil to its natural length we sometimes write
F
s
= -kl
The negative sign is used to indicate the restorative nature of F, which always opposes the direction in which
the coil is changed.
If l > u then the coil has been stretched and F will act to compress it. If l < u, then the coil has been

3
Robert Hooke (1635-1703) was a British physicist contemporary of Sir Isaac Newton.
4
Temperature, for example, has a significant effect on springs.
F
s
= kl
N
mg
F
x

mg
F
x

compressed and the force will act in opposition to restore it to its natural length.

We will assume that our springs and coils obeys Hookes Law.
Friction
Friction and drag are the other two important forces that act on moving objects. We make the simplifying
assumption that these resistive forces can be represented by a single vector D such that
D = -bu
where u is the velocity vector and b a positive constant. The negative sign tells us that D always points
opposite the direction of velocity.
Units
In the SI system, we use the kilogram (Kg) for mass, the meter (m) for distance, and the second (sec) for time.
Near the earths surface, objects are subjected to gravitys force which causes them to accelerate with an
acceleration of approximate magnitude 9.8 m/sec
2
. sometimes we will use 1u instead of 9.8 in order to
simplify calculations in which precision is not essential.
In the English system we use the slug for mass, the foot (ft) for distance, and the second (sec) for time. The
acceleration due to Earths gravitational force in these units is 32 ft/sec
2
.
Do not confuse weight with mass: the weight of an object is the product mg. Thus,
an object weighing 12u lb has a mass of
120
32
= S.7S slug
Having stated these concepts, we are ready to study the spring-mass system in the free, undamped case.
Free Undamped Motion
Attach a block of mass m to a spring
5
with spring constant k, as shown below. Assume that friction and all
other dissipative forces can be neglected. Displace the object from equilibrium and set it in motion by releasing
it with some initial velocity u
[if the object is simply released, we take :

0
= u]. Then the mass will begin to
oscillate periodically to and fro with some frequency .
We are interested in describing this periodic motion; that is, to determine the objects position function,
frequency of oscillation, and other information about its dynamics.

The force due to gravity mg and the normal contact force N cancel out since the object has no acceleration in
the vertical direction. In the horizontal direction, Newtons second law tells us that
ma = Sum o oll orccs
The only force acting on the object is the restoring force exerted by the spring, hence:

S
This is a spring that has both the capacity to be stretched and compressed, i.e., a coil. In practice we use two springs that have been
slightly stretched and attach them to opposite ends of the mass which is free to slide on an air track.
The figure shows the situation when the object is to
the right of its equilibrium position x = u. We take
this to be the positive direction. t is the unit vector in
the x-direction.
l
l
0
F
x
t
x
N
mg
F
x

x = u
x

ma = F
x

or
m
J
2
x
Jt
2
t = -kxt
Equating components,
m
J
2
x
Jt
2
= -kx
Therefore,

Equation (1) has characteristic polynomial p(z) = z
2
+km whose roots are
z = ikm anu z = -ikm
Thus,
x(t) = c
1
c
kmt
+c
2
c
-kmt

Using Eulers identity,
x(t) = Acos kmt +Bsin kmt
The units of km are the radian per second the same as those of angular velocity. For that reason, we call
this quantity the angular (or circular) frequency and also denote it by :
m = km

Do not confuse this m with the m of angular velocity of circular motion. This m describes the frequency of
oscillation of the mass in radians per second and may be converted to frequency in cycles per second via the
relation
= 2n
It represents the number of times the block moved to and fro in one second.
Equation (2) is the standard solution of equation (1) and it is a perfectly reasonable answer - we expect the
motion to be periodic. The constants A and B are obtained from the initial conditions which state where the
object is and what is its velocity when t = u. Here are some possible initial conditions:
1) The object is displaced to the right (x
0
> u) and released: x(u) = x
0
, :(u) = u.
2) The object is displaced to the left (x
0
< u) and released: x(u) = x
0
, :(u) = u.
3) The object is pulled to the right (x
0
> u) and given an additional impulse to the right (:
0
> u): x(u) = x
0
,
:(u) = :
0

Of course there are other possibilities. For example, the block starts from equilibrium (x
0
= u) and is given
impulse one way or the other (:
0
= u). The point is that the system has to be disturbed in order to begin
oscillating.

1 2 3 4 5 6
-1.0
-0.5
0.5
1.0

J
2
x
Jt
2
+
k
m
x = u (1)
x(t) = Aus mt +Bstnmt (2)
x(t)
t
x(t) > u
(right of equilibrium)
x(t) < u
(left of equilibrium)
x (u) > u

=
Do not confuse the actual motion of the block with the graph of its position function. The actual motion is to and fro. The graph above
describes the position function x(t). Also note that the object starts to the right of equilibrium: x(u) > u. Furthermore, since the
initial velocity is to the right, x (u) > u.
It is often convenient to express (2) in terms of a single trigonometric function:

Example 2 Express u(t) = Ssin(2t) +4cos(2t) as a cosine function.
Solution
Here A = 4 and B = S. Therefore, C = 4
2
+S
2
= S. The phase angle obeys the relationships
cos =
4
S
sin =
S
S

which means that is in quadrant I. In this quadrant, angle and its reference angle coincide.
Therefore, any of the inverse trigonometric functions gives us the correct angle. Using the inverse sine
for example, = sin
-1
[
3
5
= u.644

Thus,
u(t) = 5us(2t -. 44)
Example 3 Express x(t) = cos St -2sinSt as x(t) = C cos(t -).
Solution
Here A = 1 and B = -2. Therefore,
C = (1)
2
+(-2)
2
= S
and
cos =
1
S
sin =
-2
S

The last set of equations uniquely determine the positive angle in the interval |u,2n) and place it in
quadrant Iv. We can use the inverse tangent function as follows:

The reference angle may be obtained from = tan
-1
[
2
1
.
Notice that we ignore the signs of A and B. Having obtained we can
obtain the phase angle q by subtracting from 2n. Of course this
adjustment will be different if q is in quadrants II or III. In those cases
we subtract from n or add it to n, respectively.
x(t) = C cos(t -)
cos =
A
C
sin =
B
C

Trigonometric Result
The function x(t) = Acos t +Bsint, can be expressed as
Where C is a positive number given by C = (A)
2
+(B)
2
and is a positive angle in the interval |u,2n) such
that
The number C is called the amplitude and q the phase angle.
-2
1
S


Thus, = 2n -tan
-1
(2) = 2n -1.1u71. The phase angle is approximately 5.18 radians and we
may write
x(t) = 5us(3t -5. 18)
The graphs below illustrate both versions of the function. Since we approximated the graphs are not
exactly identical.

Expressing linear combinations of sines and cosines in terms of a single trigonometric function can be very
useful. For example, the amplitude of the wave in the previous example is not clear from its original equation
x(t) = cos St -2sinSt
However, it is easily identified in the equation x(t) = Scos(St -S.18). Similarly, obtaining the first zero of
the function identified by the red dot in the graphs above requires that we solve
cos St -2sinSt = u
It is easier to solve
Scos(St -S.18) = u
which we do by setting
St -S.18 =
(2n +1)n
2

or
t =
(2n +1)n +1u.S6
6

where n is an integer. If we seek the fist zero on the interval t u, we must select values of n for which
(2n +1)n +1u.S6 is non-negative and that is when n -2. Thus, the first zero (corresponding to n = -2)
takes place at
t =
-Sn +1u.S6
6
= u.1S6 sec
Example 4 A S Kg block is attached to a spring whose spring constant is 2u Nt/m and placed on an air track of
negligible friction. After displacing it a distance of Su cm to the right of equilibrium it is released and allowed
to oscillate freely. Assuming that air drag can also be neglected, determine (a) the frequency and period of
oscillation, (b) the position function, (c) the time at which the object first passes through the equilibrium
position, (d) the velocity function, and (e) the velocity at that time.
Solution
(a) We are given m = S, k = 2u. Therefore, = 2uS = 2 radxec
In order to find the frequency in Hz., we may use
= 2n
=
2n
=
2
2n
=
1
n

= u.S18 Bz.
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
-2
-1
1
2
Plot|Sqit|S] - Cos|St - S.18], {t, u, Pi]]

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
-3
-2
-1
1
2
3
Plot|Cos|St] - 2 - Sin|St], {t, u, Pi]]

The period is given by I = 1: I = S.14 sec
(b) x(t) satisfies the equation
S
J
2
x
Jt
2
+2ux = u; x(u) = u.S, :(u) = u
which has as general solution
x(t) = Aus mt +Bstnmt
where = 2. Thus,
x(t) = Acos 2t +Bsin2t
Applying the initial conditions in order to determine the arbitrary constants:
x(u) = u.S = Acos u +Bsinu = u.S
Therefore, A = . 3. To find B, we will apply the second condition which requires that we compute
the first derivative:
:(t)
Jx
Jt
= -2Asin2t +2Bcos 2t
Thus, :(u) = u =-2Asinu +2Bcos u = u. This equation implies that B = . Therefore,
x(t) = u.Scos 2t
(c) The object goes through equilibrium when x(t) = u. This occurs when 2t = (2n +1)n2 or
when
t =
(2n +1)n
4

Since t u, we insist that n u. Therefore, the first time the object goes through equilibrium is
when n = u. Thus,
t =
n
4
= . 79se
(d) The velocity function is given by
:(t) =
Jx
Jt
= -u.6sin2t
(e) The velocity vector is given by
u(t) = (-u.6sin2t)|
Thus,
u(u.79) = (-u.6sin1.S8)|
= -u.6|
This means that the object is moving to the left with a speed of u.6 m/s.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
x(t)
:(t)
u.79

Mass Hanging Vertically
If the mass hangs vertically, the general analysis is as follows: set up the spring-mass system as shown below.
After the object attains its equilibrium position we disturb it, say by pulling it down and releasing it. We want
to describe the up-and-down motion that ensues by means of its position function x(t) as we did in the
horizontal case.

Take the positive x direction as indicated in the figure so that the force of gravity has a positive component.
Applying Newtons Second Law:
ma = mgt +F
x
(S)
When the block is located at x, the springs restoring force is given by
F
x
= -(x +l)t
Thus,
mo(t)t = mgt -(x +l)t
Since the object moves in one dimension (up and down), we may replace the previous equation with a scalar
equation
m
J
2
x
Jt
2
= mg -k(l +x)
= mg -kl -kx
But kl = mg [because when the object just hangs vertically, the spring force and the force due to gravity
cancel]. Therefore,
m
J
2
x
Jt
2
= -kx
from which we obtain the equation

This equation is exactly the same as that derived in the horizontal case.
Example 5 An block weighing 12 lbs. stretches a spring a distance of 6 inches. Once in equilibrium, the
block is given a push downward with an initial speed of 1.S feet/sec. The medium in which the object moves
offers no resistance. Determine (a) its position function, (b) how long before it returns to equilibrium for the
first time, and (c) the period, frequency and angular frequency.
Solution
A 6-inch initial displacement corresponds to 612 feet and a 12 lb object has mass of 12S2 slug.
The figure below summarizing the given information.

m
J
2
x
Jt
2
+kx = u x(t
0
) = x
0
x (t
0
) = :
0
(4)
+ x direction
mgt
-klt
t = 0
x(t)
x = u
t > 0
F
s
mgt
t
l
|

(a) Since mg = 12, m =
12
32
=
3
8
slug. Thus,
S
8
x +24x = u
is the equation of motion. The initial conditions are x(u) = u and x (u) = +1.S [since the block starts
at equilibrium, x(u) = uand is initially moving down, x (u) = +1.S} Thus,
S
8
x +24x = u; x(u) = u x (u) = 1.S
The auxiliary equation is
S
8
z
2
+24 = u =z
2
+64 = u
Its roots are z = _8i. Accordingly,
x
1
(t) = c
8t
anu x
2
(t) = c
-8t

are solutions of the differential equation and its general solution is
x(t) = c
1
c
8t
+c
2
c
-8t

In trigonometric form,
x(t) = Acos 8t +Bsin8t
Applying the initial conditions,
x(u) = u =A =
x (u) = 1.S =B =
3
1

Thus,
x(t) = u cos 8t +
S
16
sin8t
x(t) =
S
16
sin8t
(b) The object goes through equilibrium when x(t) = u. Thus, we solve
S
16
sin8t = u
This is true when 8t = nn or
t =
nn
8

Since t u we demand that n u. The first nonnegative value of t for which this condition holds is
t = u, which corresponds to n = u. At this time, the object is just set in motion by the impulse force.
Thus, n = 1 corresponds to the next value of t for which x(t) = u. Hence, the object goes through
equilibrium on its way up at.
t =
n
8
= u.S9S sec
c) The period of oscillation is given by I = 2n. With = 8 we obtain
mg = 12
kl
6
kl = mg
k [
6
12
= 12
k = 24lbt
t = 0
v
u
= +1.S ftsec
x(0) = 0

I =
n
4
anu =
1
I
=
4
n

That is, I = u.78S sec, = 1.27 Bz. and of course = 8 iausec.
Example 6 A block weighing 4 lbs. is suspended from a spring whose spring constant is k = 8 lb/ft. It is pulled
down a distance of 6 inches from its equilibrium position and given an initial upward speed of 1 ft/sec.
Assuming no frictional forces, find the position function and express it as a single sine function. At what times
will the object have maximum speed?
Solution
If we had to make a graph of x(t), what would it look like? Even before solving this problem we
know that it can be represented as a sine wave (or a cosine wave if one prefers). The initial conditions
tell us that x(u) > u and x
i
(u) < u [since the object is pushed up, toward the negative direction].
Hence, we can expect a curve like this one:

Let us proceed with the usual calculations.

In this case, most of the information has been given outright and we can write the differential equation
of motion:
1
8
x +8x = u; x(u) =
1
2
, :(u) = -1
The angular frequency is given by = km = 64 = 8. Hence, the general solution is
x(t) = c
1
cos 8t +c
2
sin8t
Instead of applying the initial conditions to obtain the arbitrary constants as before, we wish to
illustrate another approach to obtaining a solution that involves a single trigonometric function (as was
mentioned before, this is often desirable). The existence and Uniqueness Theorem guarantees that if
we find a solution which satisfies the initial conditions, we will have found the only solution. With
this in mind, we seek a solution of the form
x(t) = C sin(8t +) ; C > u
We need to determine the values of C and subject to the initial conditions. Once we find a solution
which satisfies the initial conditions, we found the only solution.
1 2 3 4 5 6
-1.0
-0.5
0.5
1.0
t = u

mg=4 oi m =
1
8
slugs
6
:
0
= -1 ftsec
k = 8 lbft
x(u) = 612 = 12
vu

Since x(u) = 12, C sin = 12. The second initial condition implies that 8C cos = -1. By
dividing these two expressions we obtain

C sin
8C cos
= -u.S = tan = -4
On the interval |u,2n) this last equation is satisfied by two phase angles: one in quadrant II and the
other in quadrant IV. We need to select the one that is compatible with the initial conditions, which
require that sin > u and cos < u [this is so because it is assumed that C > u]. Hence the phase
angle must be in quadrant II. Therefore , using the reference angle approach,
= tan
-1
4
1
= 1.S2S8 = = n -1.S2S8 = 1.816
We may obtain C from either equation above. For example,
C =
u.S
sin1.816
= u.S1S4
Thus, the position function is
x(t) = u.S1S4 sin(8t +1.816 )
We can quickly verify that at least x(u) = u.S is satisfied by calculating x(u):
x(u) = u.S1S4 sin(1.816) = u.49998
Given the rounding that took place, this is acceptable. The objects velocity function x (t) is given by
x (t) = 4.12S cos(8t +1.816 )
Since |cos(8t +1.816 )| 1, the objects maximum speed is 4.12S ftsec and it is attained precisely
when |cos(8t +1.816 )| = 1 or when 8t +1.816 = nn where n is an integer. Thus, solving for t
t =
nn -1.816
8

Since t u, the first value of n for which this is true is n = 1, which gives us t = u.166 sec.
Computing the position at this time,
x(u.166) = u.S1S4 sin(8 u.166 +1.816 ) = -u.uu12
Because of rounding, this value is not identically u. However, had we used exact values it would be,
indicating that the object is going through the equilibrium position. Furthermore,
:(u.166 ) = 4.12Scos(8 u.166 +1.816 )
= -4.12S ftsec
meaning that the object is moving up, as is expected, for its first pass through the origin.
Free Damped Motion
Let us assume now that there are frictional and drag forces which are proportional to the speed with which the
object moves, say D = -bu, b > u . Then equation (3) becomes
ma = mgt +F
x
+D (S)
And the corresponding scalar equation in the variable x is
m
J
2
x
Jt
2
= mg -k(l +x) -b
Jx
Jt

= mg -kl -kx -b
Jx
Jt

But again mg = kl. Therefore,
m
J
2
x
Jt
2
= -kx -b
Jx
Jt

Hence, when we include a damping term, the equation is

Using the more traditional dot notation and setting t
0
= u (which can always be done),
mx +bx +kx = u x(u) = x
0
, :(u) = :
0

Example 7 Suppose the 12 lb. block in example S is now in a medium in which it experiences a drag force
D = -bu where b = S. Determine the position function.
Solution
Once again, k = 24 m =
3
8
but now we have a drag force with b = S. Using (6) we have
S
8
x +Sx +24x = u; x(u) = u x (u) = 1.S
The auxiliary equation is
S
8
z
2
+Sz +24 = u
Simplifying,
z
2
+8z +64 = u
The roots are z
1
= -4 +4Si and z
2
= -4 -4Si. Accordingly, the general solution in
trigonometric form is
x(t) = c
-4t
(Acos 4St +Bsin4St)
Applying the first initial condition: x(u) = u =1 (A 1 +B u) = u
Thus, A = and the solution takes the form
x(t) = Bc
-4t
sin4St
we must compute the derivative in order to apply the second condition:
x (t) = B(-4c
-4t
sin4St +c
-4t
4Scos 4St)
x (u) = 1.S =B(4S) =
S
2

Thus, B =
3
83
=
3
8
Finally, the position function is:
x(t) =
S
8
c
-4t
sin4St
What is the period? The zeros of this function take place when
sin4St = u
This equation is satisfied when
4St = nn, n = u,1,2,
Solving for t,
t =
na
43
, n = , 1, 2,
A full cycle occurs when the block goes to maximum extension, then maximum compression, and
finally back to the starting point. The object starts at the origin (t = u), moves down to its max
extension and returns to the origin when t =
a
43
Then it goes to maximum compression and returns
to the origin again when t =
2a
43
=
a
23
.Thus, the period is
I =
a
23
= . 91 xec
This makes sense: in example S there was no friction; therefore, the object took a shorter time to
complete a period.
m
J
2
x
Jt
2
+b
Jx
Jt
+kx = u x(t
0
) = x
0
x (t
0
) = :
0
(6)

The period can also be obtained from the period formula I = 2n:
I =
2a
43
=
a
23

Example 8 Suppose an 8 lb weight is suspended from a spring, stretching it 4 inches. After the mass comes to
rest, it is displaced a distance of 4 inches above equilibrium and released from rest. If the resistive force is
equal in magnitude to two times the instantaneous speed, what is the differential equation of motion?

Solution
The figures below summarize the given information

Using k = 24 lbft, m = 14 slug, b = 2 and the initial conditions x(u) = -
1
3
, :(u) = u , the
equation of motion is
1
4
x +2x +24x = u, x(u) = -1S :(u) = u
The roots of the characteristic polynomial are
z =
-2 _
_
4 -4
1
4
24
2
1
4
=
-2 _4 -24
1
2
=
-2 _2-S
1
2

= -4 _4Si
Thus,
x(t) = c
-4t
(Acos 4St +Bsin4St)
x(u) = -1S = Acos u +Bsinu = -1S = A = -13
We need x (t) to use the second condition:
x (t) = -4c
-4t
_-
1
S
cos(4St) + Bsin(4St)_ +
c
-4t
_
1
S
4S sin(4St) +B 4S cos(4St)_
Evaluating at t = u,
x (u) = -4(-1Scosu + Bsinu) +_
1
S
4Ssinu +B 4Scosu] = u = B = -32
The solution is
x(t) = -c
-4t
_
1
S
cos 4St +
S
2u
sin4St]
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
-0.10
-0.05
0.05
0.10
T
t
x(t)
k = 24 lbt
kl = mg
k [
4
12
= 8
4
x = u
t = 0
:
0
= u
x(u) = -412 = -1S

Example 9 Find the velocity of the object in the previous example at the moment it first passes through its
equilibrium position.
Solution
Since the object started above equilibrium, it will be moving down when it first passes through it.
Thus, we need to find the time when this occurs and evaluate the derivative of x at that time.
Setting x(t) = u:
-e
-4t
(u.SScos4St +u.1Ssin4St) = u
Since -c
-4t
= u, we can cancel it and write the equation:
u.SScos4St = -u.1Ssin4St
tan4St = -
u.SS
u.1S
= -2.2
Computing tan
-1
(-2.2) in order to solve for t give us a we negative number so we must be careful
with our computations. Let us graph the functions y
1
= u.SScos4St and y
2
= -u.1Ssin4St. The
first point of intersection on the inerval t u is the desired value of t:

The first point of intersection of these graphs is at approximately 0.22 sec. Therefore, this is the time at
which the objects passes through equilibrium for the first time; all we need to do is compute :(u.22):
x (t) = -4c
-4t
(-u.SScos4St + u.1Ssin4St) +c
-4t
(u.SS 4Ssin4St +u.1S 4Scos4St)
Thus,
:(u.22) = x (u.22)
= c
-40.22
|(1.S2cos(4S u.22) -u.6sin(4S u.22))
+(u.SS 4Ssin(4S u.22) +u.1S 4Scos(4S u.22))]
= . 77 Itse
This cumbersome computation illustrates the usefulness of the corresponding expressions of the form
x(t) = C cos(t -) or x(t) = C sin(t +)
Fact: The function x(t) = Acos t +Bsint can also be expressed as the sine function
x(t) = Cstn(mt +q) ; C > u
where C = A
2
+B
2
and is a positive angle in the interval |u,2n) such that
sinq =
A
C
cos q =
B
C

Its derivation is straightforward and is left as an exercise.
Consider once again our previous example:
x(t) = -c
-4t
(u.SScos4St +u.1Ssin4St)
We are interested in expressing the quantity in parenthesis as a single sine function, as described above. Here
A = u.SS and B = u.1S. Thus,
C = u.SS
2
+u.1S
2

= . 3
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
t

The phase angle q is the angle such that
sin =
u.SS
u.S6
cos =
u.1S
u.S6

This angle must be in the first quadrant because both the sine and cosine are positive. Thus, we can use either
the sin
1
or cos
1
functions to compute it. Using the former we obtain
= sin
-1
_
u.SS
u.S6
] = 1.16 iau
Using these results, the position function may be expressed more compactly as
x(t) = -c
-4t
(u.S6sin (4St +1.16))
= -. 3e
-4t
stn(45t +1. 1)
With the position function in this form, it is much easier to calculate the velocity of the mass as it goes through
equilibrium for the first time. Again we must solve x(t) = u:
-u.S6c
-4t
sin(4St +1.16) = u = sin(4St +1.16) = u
This means that
4St +1.16 = n n
where n is an integer. However, n must chosen so that t u in the expression above:
t =
n n -1.16
4S

When n = u, we obtain a negative value for t. The first value of n for which t u is n = 1. With this value
we obtain t = . 22 sec which confirms our earlier finding.
Exercise: Use the position function x(t) = -u.S6c
-4t
sin(4St +1.16) to find the velocity at t = u.22.
Other Models
Oscillatory motion is not confined to spring-mass systems. For example, we are familiar with the phenomenon
of objects partially immersed in water which oscillate up and down even when there are no waves. Take a
heavy cork and put it in a glass of water, push it down a bit and let go. Careful observation will reveal that it
bobs up and down for a while, exhibiting a form of periodic motion.
Example 10 A cylindrical object of mass H, radius r and altitude E is placed in a fluid of density p
]I
. After it
comes to rest with its base submerged to a depth h, it is pushed down a distance of y
0
and released. Find a
differential equation that describes the objects subsequent motion.
Solution
The figure below illustrates the forces that act on the object when it is in equilibrium. The small red
circle labeled P is used as a reference point which moves in exactly the same way as the cylinder.

Applying Newtons Second Law,
F
2
-F
1
-Hg = u
Hg = -p
]I
Abg
F
2
is the force due to atmospheric pressure and
F
1
is the force due to the pressure at depth h. In
this coordinate system,
Since b < u.
Area =A
+ y
u
F
1

b
P
F
2

Hg

F
2
-F
1
is s the buoyant force B. In physics we learn that this force is equal to the weight of fluid
displaced. If that volume of fluid displaced is V, then its weight is p
]I
Ig:
B
cquIbum
= p
]I
Ig = -p
]I
Abg
because b < u we must put the negative sign to ensure that B
cquIbum
> u. Now we push the
cylinder further and release it. The buoyant and gravitational forces become unbalanced and the
cylinder starts bobbing up and down. This is the motion we wish to describe relative to a coordinate
system set up such that y = u corresponds to the equilibrium position (see previous figure). At some
later time the situation is as follows:

The figure above shows an instant in which the cylinder is submerged below its equilibrium point.
Since it is now acted on by forces that no longer cancel out, it will accelerate. Observe that when the
cylinder is below equilibrium the buoyant force will exceed Hg and a net upward force will be exerted
on it. We have
B = -p
]I
A(b +y)g|
Where is the unit vector in the positive y direction
6
. Again, the negative is there to accommodate our
choice of coordinate system in which b < u. Therefore, when y is also negative B points up.
Applying Newtons Second Law,
Ha = -Hgj +B
H
J
2
y
Jt
2
j = -Hgj -p
]I
A(b +y)gj
H
J
2
y
Jt
2
j = (-Hg -p
]I
Abg -p
]I
Ayg)j
But -Hg -p
]I
Abg = u. Therefore,
H
J
2
y
Jt
2
+p
]I
Agy = u; y(u) = y
0
, :(u) = u
Since we initially pushed the cylinder down, y
0
< u. The angular frequency is given by
=
_
p
]I
Ag
H

This last equation is exactly the same as that of the spring-mass and pendulum equations except for
the physical parameters inside the radical. You should check the units of the radicand as an exercise.
Energy Methods
Energy methods capitalize on the principle of conservation of energy. Every mechanical system may be
described by an energy function which specifies at each instant in time the total mechanical energy E of the
system. The conservation of energy principle states that if there are no dissipative forces such as friction for

6
The moral of this story is: choose your coordinates well. It would have made a lot more sense to pick the downward direction as the
positive direction in this example
y
b
u
+ y
B
Hg

example, then this total mechanical energy is conserved, that is, JEJt = u. The total mechanical energy is the
sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy of the system:
E = u +K
The Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum consists of a mass m (the bob) attached to a string of length l and allowed to swing about a
fixed point P. The motion exhibited by the mass is also periodic and will in general experience decay due to
frictional losses just as is the case with all mechanical systems. We are interested in studying the idealized case
where there are no energy losses. The figure below illustrates the situation:

In order to describe the pendulums motion we need to apply Newtons Laws, which requires that we identify
all the forces at work and set up the equation corresponding to ma = F.
Alternatively, we may use an energy approach that dispenses with the need to invoke vectors. This approach
demonstrates a very important technique used to solve complex problems and you are urged to spend time
understanding it.
The idea is this: Identify all the sources of energy and the problems energy function E. Invoke conservation of
energy. The differential equation is given by
JE
Jt
= u
For the pendulum, its energy is derived from the gravitational potential energy u associated with its position
near earths surface, and kinetic energy associated with its speed. Potential energy is given by u = mgy where
y is the height above the u potential energy level (which we are free to choose). This potential energy becomes
kinetic energy K =
1
2
m:
2
when the object moves with speed : along its circular path. Thus, if there are no
frictional forces, the total energy of the system remains constant, alternating between gravitational potential
energy and kinetic energy ad infinitum:
E =
1
2
m:
2
+mgy = constont
Let us calculate E at an arbitrary point along the bobs path. as illustrated below, and let us take the u potential
energy point to be at the bottom of the swing. Assume that the object was initially displaced 0
0
from the
horizontal and released.

Since E is constant throughout the motion, JEJt = u. Therefore,
mg
I
0
:
l
P
E =
1
2
m:
2
+mgy
mg
0
y
u = u
l
l cos 0
l sin0

J
Jt
_
1
2
m:
2
+mgy] = u
Performing the differentiation,
m:
J:
Jt
+mg
Jy
Jt
= u
Cancelling m,
:
J:
Jt
+g
Jy
Jt
= u
We need to connect these derivatives somehow and the way to do it is using the variable 0. Notice that
y = l -l cos 0
Also, since the object moves along a circular path of radius l, we know that : = l
d0
dt
Thus,
l
J0
Jt
l
J
2
0
Jt
2
+g
J
Jt
(l -l cos 0) = u
Simplifying,
l
2
J0
Jt
J
2
0
Jt
2
+gl
J0
Jt
sin0 = u
or
l
J
2
0
Jt
2
+g sin0 = u
This is a non-linear equation in 0. However, we can linearize it using the small angle approximation
sin0 = 0. Thus, for small angles (say displacements of no more than S) we have the linear equation
l
J
2
0
Jt
2
+g0 = u
whose general solution is
0(t) = Aus mt +Bstnmt
where m = g|. Interestingly, the angular frequency is independent of both the amplitude of oscillation
and the mass of the object. This is of course not true in general and only applies when we are justified in using
the small angle approximation.
Notice that the form of this equation is mathematically identical to that of the spring-mass system with x
replaced by 0, m by l, and k by g:
m
J
2
x
Jt
2
+kx = u
vs.
l
J
2
0
Jt
2
+g0 = u
In fact, all mechanical systems that are subject to a restoring force obey the same mathematical law.
Example 11 A 4 Kg object is attached to a 1 m long cable and displaced 1u from the horizontal. It is released
from rest and allowed to oscillate. (a) Determine its equation of motion and express the angular displacement
0 as a function of time, (b) find the linear speed at the bottom of the swing, and (c) determine the angular
acceleration function. Use g = 1u as an approximation.
Solution
(a) Here m = 4, l = 1, and the initial conditions are 0
0
= 1u, 0
(u) = u. We will need to express 0

0

in radians. Thus, = 1u1 = S.16 rad/sec and
0(t) = Acos 1ut +Bsin 1ut
Since 0(u) = 1u = n18 radians, A = a18.
Differentiating in order to apply the second initial condition:

0
= -
1un
18
sin 1ut +1uBcos 1ut
Thus, 0
(u) = u = -
10n
18
sinu +1uB u = u. Therefore, B = . We have the solution
0(t) =
n
18
cos 1ut
(b) The angular velocity and linear (tangential) velocity are related by
: = l
J0
Jt

Differentiating 0(t) and using l = 1,
:(t) = -
n1u
18
sin 1ut
At the bottom of the swing, 0 = u. Therefore, we set 0(t) = u in order to find the times at which the
object is at that location.
n
18
cos 1ut = u = 1ut = (2n +1)n2
or
t =
(2n +1)n
21u

where n u. The first time the object is at the bottom of the swing corresponds to n = u. Thus,
t = n21u sec. At this time,
:(n21u) = -
n1u
18
sin_1u
n
21u
]
= -
n1u
18

which is approximately u.SS m/sec.
(c) The angular acceleration o(t) is given by
d
2
0
dt
2
:
o(t) = -
Sn
9
cos 1ut
Example 12 A wheel radius o and moment of inertia is I and mass m is attached to a spring whose spring
constant is k. The spring is secured to a wall and to the wheel which is free to rotate without slipping. If the
wheels center is displaced to some initial position x
0
units from its from its equilibrium position, find the
differential equation that x(t) satisfies and the systems natural frequency.

Solution
The energy equation is given by
F = putenttal energy stured tn sprtng +htnett energy uI CM+rutattunal energy uI dtsh
where CH stands for the wheels center of mass (i.e. its center). Once we identify each of these, it is a
matter of differentiating and deriving the differential equation.
At some time t > u, the object is moving with velocity :, the wheel is rotating with angular velocity
and the spring is stretched by an amount x(t), which may be negative is the spring is compressed.
k
I, m
o
u
k
I, m
o
u
x
0

E =
1
2
kx
0
2


Thus, the total energy at time t is given by
E =
1
2
m:
2
+
1
2
I
2
+
1
2
kx
2

where : = o (this is the non-slip condition) and : = JxJt. Notice that this is just and
accounting equation it accounts for all the energy of the system which must remain constant as
long as there are no frictional losses. Setting the derivative of E equal to u gives us the desired
differential equation:
J
Jt
_
1
2
m:
2
+
1
2
I
2
+
1
2
kx
2
] = u
m:
J:
Jt
+I
J
Jt
+kx
Jx
Jt
= u
Using = :o and J:Jt = J
2
xJt
2
we may write a differential equation in terms of the variable x:
m
Jx
Jt
J
2
x
Jt
2
+I
Jx
Jt
o
J [
:
o
Jt
+kx
Jx
Jt
= u
Cancelling JxJt and simplifying,
m
J
2
x
Jt
2
+I
1
o
2
J
2
x
Jt
2
+kx = u
or
_m+
I
o
2
]
J
2
x
Jt
2
+kx = u
The systems natural frequency is given by
=
_
k
[m+
I
o
2

Example 13 An object of mass m is attached to a string which wraps around a pulley of radius o and moment
of inertia is I. The string is attached to a spring with spring constant k which is secured to a wall. The mass is
displaced from its equilibrium position and released. Determine a differential equation that governs its motion.

Kinetic energy
Rotational energy
potiential energy
m
a
I
k
o
Kinetic Energy=
1
2
m:
2

Rotational energy=
1
2
I
2

Potential energy =
1
2
kx
2

x = u
k
I, m
o
x(t)
:

Solution
Let us place the zero gravitational potential energy line at the level at which the object is in
equilibrium
7
. Since the spring is stretched by some amount once the object is attached, there is some
potential energy stored in the spring. If denotes the amount by which this spring is stretched, then
that initial spring potential energy is given by
1
2
k
2
.
The equilibrium state is shown in the figure on the left:

If the object is disturbed from this equilibrium position it will begin to oscillate. Let us denote that
displacement by y(t) with the convention that values above equilibrium are positive.
Now consider a point in time after the object is disturbed and is, say, y units above equilibrium (figure
to the right). Then the systems energy is distributed as gravitational potential and kinetic energy of
the mass, potential energy of the spring (this energy is u when the spring is un-stretched), and
rotational energy of the pulley. The sum total of these constitutes the total mechanical energy of the
system at time t:
E(t) = mgy +
1
2
I
2
+
1
2
k( - y)
2
+
1
2
m:
2

and if there are no frictional losses, E(t) is constant. Therefore,
dL
dt
= u.
Differentiating the energy equation,
J
Jt
_mgy +
1
2
I
2
+
1
2
k( - y)
2
+
1
2
m:
2
_ = u
We are on our way to a differential equation of motion. To avoid excessive clutter, we will use the
prime to denote differentiation with respect to time:
mgy' +I
i
+k( - y)(-y') + m::' = u
The relation between y and is
y' = o = =
1
o
y'
Therefore,
mgy' +I
1
o
y'
1
o
y'' +k( - y)(-y
'
) + my' y'' = u
Simplifying this expression,
mg +I
1
o
2
y'' -k( - y) + my'' = u
or
mg +I
1
o
2
y'' - k +ky + my'' = u
But mg = k. Therefore,
_m+
I
a
2
] y'' +ky =
Finally, we state the initial conditions: y() = y
, u() = .

7
This means that when the object is below the equilibrium position, its potential energy is negative.
u = u
m
I
k

mg
k
t > u

u = u
m
I
mg
k( - y)
y
u = mgy

As you can see, the energy method is a very powerful tool. The previous two problems would have been extremely difficult
to solve using the usual vectorial approach.
Exercise: The energy of spring-mass system in a non-dissipative is given by E =
1
2
m:
2
+
1
2
kx
2
. Use it to
derive the equation
m
J
2
x
Jt
2
+kx = u
It is interesting to summarize the systems we have studied in the following way:

Equation: m
d
2
x
dt
2
+kx = u l
d
2
0
dt
2
+g0 = u
d
2
dt
2
+p
]I
Agy = u [m+
I
u
2
d
2
dt
2
+ky = u
Frequency: =
1
2n
_
k
m
=
1
2n
_
g
I
=
1
2n
_
p
]l
Ag
M
=
1
2n
_
k
m+
I
c
2

General Qualitative Analysis
Now let us consider the qualitative aspects of spring-mass systems governed by the equation
mx +hx +kx = x() = x
, u() = u

This differential equations characteristic polynomial is
p(z) = mz
2
+bz +k
whose roots are
z =
-b _b
2
-4mk
2m

Therefore, depending on the sign of the discriminant = b
2
-4mk we will have one of three possible
situations: two distinct real roots (D > 0) , two coincident real roots (D = u), or a complex conjugate pair
(D < u).
Accordingly, the solutions will involve exponential functions with real arguments in the first two cases and
exponential functions with complex arguments which will lead to trigonometric functions in the third case.
To simplify the analysis, denote b
2
-4mk by (the Greek letter xi). Let us consider each case in turn.
Case I: b
2
-4mk > u [two real distinct roots]
In this case, the position function is given by
x(t) = c
1
c
[ -
b
2m
+
1
2m
{t
+c
2
c
[-
b
2m
-
1
2m
{t

= e
-
h
2m
t
_c
1
e
[
1
2m
t
+c
2
e
[-
1
2m
t
]
Using LHopitlals Rule one can show that this function has a finite limit as t - . Systems for which b
2
-
4mk > u are called over-damped systems because the damping forces are very large in magnitude and impede
motion severely.
Exercise: Show that, regardless of the values of c
1
and c
2
, lim
t-
x(t) = u.
CASE II: b
2
-4mk = u [two real and equal roots]
In this case, we have repeated roots and the position function is given by
m
spring
mg
0
:
y
b
u
+ y
Hg
B
k
u = u
m
I
mg
y

x(t) = e
-
h
2m
t
(c
1
+c
2
t)
It is easy to see that this function also has limit 0 as t - . This is expected since the object is being subjected
to retarding forces. Systems for which b
2
-4mk = u are called critically damped systems.
CASE III: b
2
-4mk < u [complex roots]
The roots are complex conjugates given by
8

r =
-b _b
2
-4mk
2m
=
-b _i||
2m

The position function is given by
x(t) = c
-
b
2m
t
_c
1
c
[
1
2m
-{t
+c
2
c
[-
1
2m
-{t
]
Using Eulers equation,
x(t) = e
-
h
2m
t
_c
1
us _
-
2m
t_ +c
2
stn_
-
2m
t__
Once again, it is easy to show that lim
t-
x(t) = u.
Systems for which b
2
-4mk < u are called under-damped because the damping forces are not strong enough
to prevent oscillatory motion. Nevertheless, the motion will cease eventually, driven by the exponentially
decaying term c
-[t2m
.

Under- damped profile

Example 14 The equation 2x +4x +x = u; x(u) = 1 x (u) = u corresponds to a spring that has been pulled
down 1 unit below equilibrium and released (u initial speed). Since b
2
-4mk = 16 -8 = 8 > u, we have an
over-damped system whose position function is
x(t) = c
1
c
(-2+2)t
+c
2
c
(-2-2)t

= c
-2t
(c
1
c
2t
+c
2
c
-2t
)
Applying the initial conditions,
x(u) = 1 =c
1
+c
2
= 1
x (u) = u =(2 -2)c
1
-(2 +2)c
2
= u
Solving the system:
(2 -2)c
1
-(2 +2)(1 -c
2
) = u
Thus,
c
1
=
2 +2
22
c
2
=
2 -2
22

8
Since b
2
-4mk < u, || = -. Therefore, - is positive.

Over- damped profile

Finally,
x(t) = e
-2t
_
2 +2
22
e
2t
+
2 -2
22
e
-2t
_
The figure below illustrates this situation.

x(t) = c
-2t
_
2 +2
22
c
2t
+
2 - 2
22
c
-2t
_
Example 15 The equation 2x +4x +2x = u; x(u) = u x (u) = 1 corresponds to a spring that starts at
equilibrium and is pushed in the positive direction with an initial speed of 1 unit/sec. In this case is b
2
-
4mk = 16 -16 = u. Therefore, we have a critically-damped system. The characteristic polynomial has a
root r = -1 of multiplicity 2. Thus, the solution is given by
x(t) = c
1
c
-t
+c
2
tc
-t

= c
-t
(c
1
+c
2
t)
The initial conditions require that c
1
= u and c
2
= 1. Hence,
x(t) = te
-t

is the solution. The only time this object is at equilibrium is when t = u. Subsequent to that, the blow
pushes it down and the object takes forever to get to its equilibrium state again!

ltm
t-
x(t) =
Example 16 Consider an over-damped spring-mass system with no forcing function which has the following
initial conditions: x(u) = u, x (u) = :
0
. In other words, the system starts at rest and is set in motion by a blow
in one or the other direction. Show that the only time at which the mass is at the equilibrium position is when
t = u. That is, if t > u then x(t) = u.
Solution
The solution for over-damped systems has the form
x(t) = c
-
b
2m
t
_c
1
c
[
1
2m
{t
+c
2
c
[-
1
2m
{t
]
where = b
2
-4mk.
Applying the first condition:
x(u) = u =c
1
+c
2
= u
Therefore, c
1
= -c
2
and we may replace these constants with a single constant, which we denote by c.
Thus, c
1
= c and c
2
= -c. Thus,
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
2 4 6 8
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35

x(t) = cc
-
b
2m
t
_c
[
1
2m
{t
-c
[-
1
2m
{t
]
Clearly x(u) = u. Will it ever be u again? Assume that there is a value of t > u such that
cc
-
b
2m
t
_c
[
1
2m
{t
-c
[-
1
2m
{t
] = u
Since c = u and c
-
b
2m
t
= u,
c
[
1
2m
{t
-c
[-
1
2m
{t
= u
That is
c
[
1
2m
{t
= c
[-
1
2m
{t

or
c
[
1
m
{t
= 1
But we assumed t > u. Therefore, this equation is satisfied only if
1
m
= u or = u. This is a
contradiction because we assumed that the system is over-damped so that > u. Therefore, the mass
will never pass though equilibrium again and its position function will have one of the following
profiles, depending on the initial velocity:

Exercise 1: In the previous example, show that the position function can be written as
x(t) = Ae
-
h
2m
t
stnh_
1
2m
t]
where A is a constant. Also, find lim
t-
x(t).
Exercise 2: Show that in the critically damped case, the mass can pass through equilibrium at most once,
depending on the initial conditions.
DATA FOR THE SPRING EXPERIMENT PERFORMED IN CLASS
Extension (cm) MASS (gm)
0 0
1.4 50
2.0 70
2.8 100
4.5 150

2 4 6 8
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
0 2 4 6
m
a
s
s
extension
We can find k from the slope of the line. Since
we are using mass, if the spring truly obeys
Hookes Law, then we should find that Hg =
kx or H =
k
g
x. In other words, the variable H
(mass) should be a linear function of x.
x (u) > u
x (u) < u

2 4 6 8
-0.4
-0.2
0.2
0.4

The slope of the line is kg so by calculating it, we can obtain thevalue of k. The computed value of the slope
is u.uS226 Kg/cm or S.226 Kg/m Thus,
k = g S.226 = 31. 1 Ntm
The real test now is to measure the natural frequency of vibration and compare it to the observed frequency.
Using the empirical values of k with a mass of u.S0 kg in the formula =
1
2n
kH we obtain the theoretical
value of frequency:
thcoctcuI
=
1
2n
S1.61u.S = 1. 27 Hz.
The observed frequency
9
is
obsccd
=
1u
8.uS
= 1. 24 Hz.
which is in remarkable agreement.

9
In order to measure the frequency, we time 10 oscillations. Thus, dividing this time by 10 allows us to obtain the observed frequency.
Several trials of this should be done in order to find an average that is more representative of the true frequency. Three measurements
were made resulting in 8.1, 8.0, and 8.0 seconds Thus, (I) = 8.uS sec. My gratitude to the physics department for lending me the
equipment and to Ms. Isabella Orozco for assisting me with time measurements.

Lecture 8 Vibrations

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Lecture 8 Vibrations

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Copyright Ren Barrientos Page 1

VIBRATIONS AND PERIODIC PHENOMENA

[if the object is simply released, we take :

Copyright Ren Barrientos Page 10

(u) = u. We will need to express 0

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