CHAPTER 2 : UNIFORM FLOW IN OPEN CHANNEL

2.1 Resistance of Flow Formula 2.2 Determination of Normal depths by Various Methods 2.3 Design of Open Channels 2.4 Effectives Cross-Sections (Circular, Rectangular, Trapezoidal)

Definition

2.0 Uniform flow in open channel

The depth, flow area and velocity at every cross section are constant.
The energy grade line, water surface and channel bottom are all parallel; that is, S f = S w = So

where;
Sf = slope energy grade line Sw = slope of the water surface

So = slope of the channel bed

In general, uniform flow can occur only in very long, straight and prismatic channel.

Energy grade line for open channel

2.0 Uniform flow in open channel

General Flow Equation

AV

Where; Q = discharge A = cross section area V = velocity

Continuity equations

2.0 Uniform flow in open channel

Inflow

3a Change in Storage 3b

Outflow
1 A 2
Section AA

Inflow Outflow = Change in Storage

2.1 The Formula

2.1 Resistance of flow

For computational purposes, the average velocity of a uniform flow can be computed approximately by any one of a number of semiempirical uniform flow equations.
All these equations have the form

v = CRxSy Where; v = average velocity C= resistance coefficient S = channel longitudinal slope R = hydraulic radius x and y = coefficients

2.2.1 : Chezy equation

This equation was developed by a French engineer, Antoine Chezy around the year 1768.
The fundamental basis Force producing motion = friction force resisting motion V C RS where; V = average velocity C = coefficient R = hydraulic radius, (A/P) S = slope of the energy grade line (dimensionless)

2.1 Resistance of flow

The formula was derived based on two assumptions:

1. The force resisting the flow per unit area of the stream bed is proportional to the square of the velocity (KV2), with K being a proportionality constant. 2. The difficulty with this formula is determining the value of C, which is the Chezy resistance factor. There are three different formulas for determining C, the G.K. Formula, the Bazin Formula, and the Powell Formula.

a. Ganguillet Kutter Formula

2.1 Resistance of flow

0.00281 1.811 41.65 S n n 0.00281 1 41.65 S R

Imperial Unit

23 C 1

0.00155 S n 0.00155 23 S R

1 n

SI Unit

b. Bazin Formula

157.6 1 m R

Imperial Unit

87 1 m

SI Unit
R

c. Powell
C C 42 log Re C R

2.1 Resistance of flow

Imperial Unit

n & m are roughness factors determine by experiment. Later on, when Manning's equation was developed in 1889, a relationship between Mannings n and Chezys C was established.

Finally in 1933, the Manning equation was suggested for international use rather than Chezys Equation.

1.49 1/ 6 R n

Imperial Unit

1 1/ 6 R n

SI Unit

Description of channel

Bazin's m

Very smooth cement of planed wood Unplaned wood, concrete or brick

Ashlar, rubble masonry or poor brickwork Earth channels in perfect condition Earth channels in ordinary condition Earth channels in rough condition Description of channel New Neat cement surface 0.0002

0.11 0.21
0.83 1.54 2.36 3.17 Powell's, Old 0.0004

Unplaned-plank flumes
Concrete lined channels Earth, straight and uniform Dredhged earth channels

0.001
0.004 0.04 0.1

0.0017
0.006

2.1.2 : Mannings Equation

This formula was later adapted to obtain a flow measurement. This is done by multiplying both sides by the area.

1.49 Q AR 2 3 S 1 2 f n

Imperial Unit

1 23 12 AR S f n

SI Unit

Mannings equation is the most widely used of all uniform-flow formulas for open channel flow, because of its simplicity and satisfactory results it produces in real-world applications.

Mannings Roughness coefficient, n

Material
Natural Streams Clean and Straight Major Rivers Sluggish with Deep Pools 0.030 0.035 0.040

Manning n

Material

Manning n

Excavated Earth Channels Clean Gravelly Weedy Stony, Cobbles 0.022 0.025 0.030 0.035

Floodplains Pasture, Farmland Light Brush Heavy Brush Trees

0.035 0.050 0.075 0.15

Non-Metals Finished Concrete Unfinished Concrete Gravel Earth 0.012 0.014 0.029 0.025

Factors Affecting Mannings Coefficient

2.1 Resistance of flow

Surface Roughness
Vegetation Channel Irregular Channel Alignment Silting and Scouring Obstruction Size and Shape of Channel Stage and Discharge Seasonal Change Suspended Material and Bed Load

2.1.3 : Channel properties and velocity distribution

Natural channels Artificial channels 1. Canals 2. Spillways 3. Sewers 4. Culverts 5. Drainage ditches
1

4 3

16

Cont : Channel properties and velocity distribution

17

Cont : Channel properties and velocity distribution

The measured velocity in open channels are always vary across a channel section because of friction along the boundary The velocity distribution is not symmetric (as in pipe) Flow may be either laminar or turbulent and determined by Reynolds Number Re<2000 = Laminar flow and Re>4000 = Turbulent flow
18

2.1.4 : Friction loss in uniform open channel flow

19

Cont : Friction loss in uniform open channel flow

LV 2 hf 2 gD substitute R D/ 4 and taking S o h f /L gives the formula in a uniform flow : So 1 V2 or 2 g 4R 2 log 8 gRSo V2 ks 0.6275 18.4 R Re ks 0.6275v 14.8R R 8 gRSo

2 8 gRSo log

In practise, flow in open channel is usually in the rough turbulent zone For a uniform flow, the gravity Force must be exactly balance the frictional resistance force (which apply as shear force along the bed and walls)
20

Cont : Friction loss in uniform open channel flow

The gravity force is resolved in the direction of flow is :
o

PL

The boundary shear stress: Considering the small bed slope (gradually uniform) gASo gRSo o P Assuming flow is in a rough turbulent state, shear force is proportional to the velocity squared; V 2or o KV 2 o Thus;
V g RSo K
o

PL

gAL sin

C By grouping constant as C, can be written as, V C RSo

8g /

substitue C and lamdar, DW for OC

21

To widely adapted C to be used by engineers is;

C V Q

R1 / 6 / n R 2 / 3 So
3/ 2

/ n velocity

1 A5 / 3 1 / 2 In terms of discharge, S 2/3 o nP

Now, due to its long practical used, few typical mannings n given as:

22

Channel conveyance:

Channel conveyance K is a measure of carrying apacity of channel. K is actually given by:

AC RSo

KSo

1/ 2

For any given water depth, its value may be found by equating the above formula: A5 / 3 1 2/3

nP

2/3

AR

Used of conveyance may be made when calculating discharge and stage in compound channels.

KS

1/ 2 o

,K
i 1

1 Ai5 / 3 ni Pi 2 / 3

i 1

1 Ai Ri2 / 3 ni
N

A typical compound channel for irregular section:

K
i 1

1 Ai Ri2 / 3 ni
23

Example 1

2.1 Resistance of flow

Water flows in a rectangular concrete open channel (n = 0.012) that is 12.0m wide at a depth of 2.5 m. The channel slope is 0.0028. Find the water velocity and flow rate using Mannings equation.

Example 2

2.1 Resistance of flow

If the flow rate in open channel is 50 m3/s with the velocity of 6 m/s, determine the cross-section of these channel:
i. circle ii. Rectangular if b=2y

iii. Trapezoidal if b=y and z=3

Example 3

2.1 Resistance of flow

A trapezoidal channel with 3 m width and bed slope 1 in 5000 is proposed to be built. The depth of flow is approximately 1.2m and the side slope is 1:2. Calculate the flow rate with these formulas:
i. Manning (n=0.025)

ii. Ganguilet-Kutter (n=0.025)

iii. Bazin (m=1.3)

Example 4

2.1 Resistance of flow

A triangular channel (V shape) has a side slope at 45, 0.25 m of water depth and bed slope 1 in 500. Use Chezy coefficient C=56. Determine the flow rate of this channel.

Example 5
Measurements carried out on the uniform flow of water in a long rectangular channel 3.5 m wide and a bed slope 0.0012, revealed that at a depth of flow of 0.8 m the discharge of water was 3.6 m3/s. Estimate the discharge of water when the depth is 1.5 m using Manning Equation Chezy Equation
Note: C
1 1/ 6 R n

2.2 Determination of Normal depths by Various Methods

Mannings equation
In Mannings equation, the parameter AR2/3 is termed the section factor
K n AR 2 3

is by definition the conveyance of the channel.

For a given channel; where AR2/3 always increases with increasing depth, each discharge has corresponding unique depth at which uniform flow occurs. Normal depth - function of Q, slope, channel cross section
Q n AR 2 3 S 1 2 f

Depth that would occur if channel was long enough for uniform flow to develop

Example 1

2.2 Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity

Given a trapezoidal channel with bottom width of 3 m, side slope of 1:1.5, a longitudinal slope of 0.0016 and a resistance coefficient of n=0.013, determine the normal discharge if the normal depth of flow is 2.6m. In general, the most difficult and tedious normal flow calculation occurs when Q, , S and n are known and yN must be estimated. In such a case, an explicit solution Q=VA is not possible and the problem must be solved by trial and error, design chart or numerical methods.

2.2.1 Trial and Error and Graphical Solution

2.2 Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity

For graphical solution, plot a graph the depth of flow (normal depth) versus section factor (AR2/3) and try to get a straight line.
Example 2: Using the example 1 to determine normal depth if the discharge is 71 m3/s

Trial and error solution

AR2/3 = 23.075 Trial y 2.000 2.500 A=(3+1.5y)y 12.000 16.875 P=3+3.6y 10.200 12.000 R=A/P 1.176 1.406 AR2/3 13.373 21.181

2.600
2.605 2.604

17.940
17.994 17.983

12.360
12.378 12.374

1.451
1.454 1.453

22.998
23.091 23.073

Graphical Solution

AR2/3 = 23.075 Trial y A=(3+1.5y)y 0.500 1.000 1.875 4.500

P=3+3.6y 4.800 6.600

R=A/P 0.391 0.682

AR2/3 1.002 3.486

1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000

7.875 12.000 16.875 22.500

8.400 10.200 12.000 13.800

0.938 1.176 1.406 1.630

7.543 13.373 21.181 31.169

2.2 Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity

Trial normal depth (m) vs AR2/3

3.500

Trial normal depth (m)

3.000

2.500

2.000

1.500

1.000

0.500

0.000 0.000 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000 35.000

AR2/3

2.2.2 General Design Chart

2.2 Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity

In order to simplify the computation of the normal depth for common channel shapes, dimensionless curves for the section factor as a function of the depth have been prepared for rectangular, circular and trapezoidal.
Although these curves provide solutions to the problem of normal depth computation for these channel shapes in a manner similar to that used in problem that they do not provide a general method of solution.

Example 3 (Design Chart)

2.2 Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity

Given a circular culvert 0.91 m in diameter with S=0.0016 and n=0.015, find the normal depth of flow for a discharge of 0.42 m3/s. (Use Design Chart)

2.2 Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity

2.2.3 Numerical Methods

2.2 Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity

If a computer is available and a large number of normal depth estimation problems must be solved, then a numerical trial and error produced may be the best approach.
A logical diagram for a numerical solution in the case of rectangular, trapezoidal, triangular, circular and natural channels is given.

Exercise

2.2 Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity

1. A rectangular channel with 6 m width and bed slope, 0.0016 flow through the channel with 10 m3/s, n=0.017. Calculate the value of normal depth with
i. Trial and error

ii. Graph
iii. Design Chart

2. How deep will water flow at the rate of 6.80 m3/s in a rectangular channel 6.10 m wide laid on a slope of 0.00010? Use n=0.0149.

Excercise

2.2 Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity

3. A concrete lined trapezoidal channel has a bed width of 3.5m, side slope at 45 to the horizontal, a bed slope 1:1000 and Manning Roughness coefficient of 0.015. Calculate the normal depth of uniform flow when the discharge is 20 m3/s. (Using Trial & Error Method). 4. Design a rectangular channel to be made of formed unfinished concrete with Mannings coefficient, 0.017 to carry 12 m3/s of water when laid on a 1.2 percent slope. In the final design, the width was made 2 m. Determine the normal depth for this discharge.

2.3 Design of Channel

2.3 Design of channel

A critical topic in the area of open channel hydraulics in the design of channels capable of transporting water between two points in a safe, cost effective manner.
Although economics, safety and esthetics must always be considered, only the hydraulic aspects of channel design will be examined. The design channels for uniform flow divides by three types of channels: Lined or nonerodible Unlined, earthen or erodible Grass lined

2.4 The Most Effective Cross Sections

From the Manning and Chezy equation, it is clear that the conveyance of a channel increases as the hydraulic radius increases or as the wetted perimeter decreases.
Thus, from the viewpoint of hydraulics, there is among all channel cross sections of a specified geometric shape and area an optimum set of dimensions for that shape. The one that will have the greatest capacity for a given slope, area and roughness.

If these parameter constant, velocity will be greatest when the wetted perimeter is smallest.
The most efficient (effective) is the most economical.

Semicircular smallest wetted perimeter

2.4 Best Hydraulic Section

The most efficient cross section happened when: Flow rate (Q) is maximum Slope (S) constant so hydraulics radius (R) is maximum and wetted perimeter (P) is minimum dP /dy = 0

Notes:

2.4 Best Hydraulic Section

For all trapezoidal channels, the best hydraulic section is obtained when R=y/2. the symmetrical section will be a half-hexagon.
For a rectangular channel (when =0), A=y/2. Thus the best hydraulic radius half the depth.

The circle has the least perimeter for a given area. A semicircular open channel will discharge more water than any other shape (for the same area, slope and factor, n).

2.4.1 Rectangular channel

2.4 Best Hydraulic Section

2.4.2 Most efficient trapezoidal section for Rectangular channel

2.4 Best Hydraulic Section

Most efficient triangular section for Rectangular channel

Most efficient triangular section for Rectangular channel

Example 1

2.4 Best Hydraulic Section

An open channel with n=0.011 is to be designed to carry 1.0 m3/s at slope of 0.0065. Find the most efficient cross section for; a. A rectangular b. A semicircular c. A triangular d. A trapezoidal

Example 2

2.4 Best Hydraulic Section

An open channel is designed to carry 15m3/s at a channel slope of 0.0009. If Chezys coefficient is 66, determine the most efficient cross section for these channel: i. a rectangular ii. a trapezoidal
If the excavation cost is RM5 per m3, determine the most efficient cross section (economically) between (i) and (ii) for the 50m channels length

Exercise

2.4 Best Hydraulic Section

1. Water flows in a rectangular concrete open channel with flow rate 13.1 m3/s at a velocity 1.8m/s. Calculate the channel slope needed if:
i. Flow rate is maximum ii. Width equal 3 time normal depth (C=66m1/2/s) 2. A trapezoidal channel will be design. The required flow rate will be 12.2 m3/s of flow rate along 6 km length and 2 m/s of velocity. The side slope of the channel is 45. Determine the channel slope, normal depth and width of an effective cross section. Given the Mannings roughness coefficient is 0.015. If this channel will be lined with bricks, determine the total bricks (pieces) required if 1 m2 contain of 100 pieces of bricks.

2.4 Best Hydraulic Section

3. A triangular channel will be design with 14 m3/s of flow rate along 5.5 km length and 2 m/s of velocity. The side slope of the channel is 45. Determine the bed slope and normal depth for an effective cross section where the Mannings roughness coefficient is 0.013. If this channel will be lined with bricks, determine the total bricks (pieces) required if 1 m2 contain of 100 pieces of bricks.
4. A rectangular channel will be design with 14.2 m3/s of flow rate along 6.5km length and 2.25 m/s of velocity. i. Determine the channel slope, normal depth and width of an effective cross section. ii. If this channel will be lined with bricks which are 1m2 area contain of 100 pieces of bricks. Determine the total bricks (pieces) are required in this channel. (n = 0.016)