Chapter One : Hydraulics an introduction

Objective: To define and analyse the uniform and non-uniform flow in open channel

Introduction : Open channel Open channel is actually a natural stream channel or drainage channel where flow is open to the atmosphere and water moves by gravity. A flow of water may be term as either open channel flow or pipe flow. Both types of flows are similar in many ways but differ in one important aspect in which the open channel flow is characterized by the existence of an interface between the liquid and the atmosphere.

Figure 1 : Pipe flow

Figure 2 : Open channel flow

This interface is usually called as free-surface flow. Such flows can occur in rivers, lakes, channels and also sewers. In contrast to pipe flow, there is no direct atmospheric interface and the hydraulic pressure normally exists at the interface between fluid and pipe wall.

Figure 3 : Pipe and Open channel flow

Nor Alias - BAA 2723 Hydraulics

Page 5

Figure 3 compared the pipe and open channel flow, where the water levels are maintained by the pressure in pipe at elevations represented by the hydraulic grade line. Total energy of the flow in any section (with reference to datum) is the sum of the elevation Z, pressure head and velocity head. Hf is head loss that occurs when water flows from section 1 to section 2. The figure on the right hand side illustrates the flow for an open channel, which is simplified by assuming parallel flow with a uniform velocity distribution in a channel with mild slope. In this case, the hydraulic gradient is the water surface as the depth of water corresponds to the peizometric height. The pressure distribution within a water body in a free-surface flow is assumed to be hydrostatic. It is more complicated and difficult to solve problems related to flows in open channels than in closed pipes as the presence of free surface; as its position often changes with time and space plus it can be in any shapes. 1.1. Types of Flow

The manner in which water moves through a open channel or stream can vary from simple to complex. Different types of flow can occur in open channels. Flow conditions often change within the same river. Certain sections of the river often transition from one type of flow condition to another and back again. The changes of flow pattern with respect to time and distance along the flow direction, it thus classified into few types. To classify types of flow, two condition were examined: the uniformity of the flow within the stream and the steadiness of the flow over time. A steady flow is one in which the conditions of velocity, pressure, and cross-section may differ from point to point but do not change with time. If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change with time, the flow is described as unsteady. [v constant with time at any point]

Nor Alias - BAA 2723 Hydraulics

Page 6

If the flow velocity is assumed to have the same speed and direction at every point within the fluid, it is said to be uniform [uniform flow v remain the same over a distance]. If at a given instant, the velocity is not the same at every point, the flow is non-uniform [two types of non-uniform flow : Gradually Varied Flow (GVF) and Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF)].

Flow categories For steady uniform flow, the depth is constant with both time and distance. This constitutes the fundamental type of flow in an open channel in which the gravity forces and the resistance forces are balanced.

Steady non-uniform also called as steady varied flow. Depth varies with distance, but not with time. This type of flow may either be gradually varied or rapidly varied.

Nor Alias - BAA 2723 Hydraulics

Page 7

Depth varies with both time and distance (very rare situation)

Every condition of the flow may change from point to point and with time at every point.

1.2.

Geometric Characteristics of Channels

Open channel are often classified as artificial channels and natural channels. Artificial channels refer to all man-made channels (irrigation, navigation canal, spillways, sewers, culverts and drainage ditches). They are normally of regular cross section and bed slope, and called as prismatic channels. Normally constructed of concrete, steel or earth and normally have the surface roughness characteristics. The surface roughness will often change with time, distance and even elevation. Consequently it becomes more difficult to accurately analyze and obtain satisfactory result for natural channels. For hydraulic purposes, various geometric properties are required for a channel cross section. For artificial channels these can usually be defined using simple algebraic equations given; y as flow depth. Listed in table below are geometric elements of channel section.

Nor Alias - BAA 2723 Hydraulics

Page 8

Nor Alias - BAA 2723 Hydraulics

Page 9

1.2.1 Types of Channel There are three basic types of channels, straight, meandering and braided. Describing a channel by one of the aforementioned terms does not mean that the entire channel is straight or otherwise. It simply means that some portion of the channel can be described in such a way. In fact, portions of a stream may be straight, some meandering and others braided. Sinuosity ratio is the distance between two points on the stream measured along the channel divided by the straight line distance between the two points. If the sinuosity ratio is 1.5 or greater the channel is considered to be a meandering one.

a.

Straight channels

Straight channel seems pretty obvious, though rarely is a channel perfectly straight in nature. b. Braided Channel

A braided channel is created when a stream channel is divided into several smaller ones by the accumulation of in-channel deposits. This occurs when the load of flat stream channel is too great for the velocity or discharge. Or, seasonal fluctuations in discharge expose in-channel deposits. Sand or gravel bars accumulate subdividing the flow of water into many smaller channels. Braided streams are common in glaciated areas where melt water streams choked with sediment is discharged at the snout of the glacier.

Nor Alias - BAA 2723 Hydraulics

Page 10

c.

Meandering

A meandering channel is one that takes twists and turns over its length. Geoscientists use the sinuosity ratio to determine whether a channel is straight or meandering. The sinuosity ratio is the distance between two points on the stream measured along the channel divided by the straight line distance between the two points. If the sinuosity ratio is 1.5 or greater the channel is considered to be a meandering one. 1.2.2 Velocity distribution in a channel Measured velocity in an open channel will always vary across a channel section because of friction along the boundary. Furthermore, the velocity distribution is not axisymmetric (as in pipe flow) due to the existence of the free surface. Figure below shows the typical velocity distribution across various channel cross-sections, where the numeric values indicate the percentage of maximum velocity.

The velocity is smaller near the boundary. The average velocity is given by;

Q where Q : rate of flow or discharge, Q is measured using weir, flume or A current meter. V
1.2.3 Laminar and Turbulent flow As in pipes the flow in an open channel may be either laminar or turbulent. The criterion for determining the flow type is again by referring to the Reynolds Number. For pipe flow , Re

vD

where the Re<2000 defines laminar flow, and Re>4000 gives

turbulent flow. These results can be applied to an open channel flow if a suitable form of the Reynolds number can be found. This requires that, the characteristic length dimension

Nor Alias - BAA 2723 Hydraulics

Page 11

(diameter for pipes) be replaced by an equivalent of 1 for channels. As R=A/P, then the Reynolds number for channels may be defined as

Re

vD

, for full pipe flow, R=D/4 so Re channel

Re pipe 4

. The limits for determining flow

1000 for

type in an open channel thus become Re channel

500 for laminar flow and Re channel

turbulent flow.in practice the upper limit is not so well defined for channels as it is for pipes and so 2000 is often taken as threshold for turbulent flow.

For open channel flow; flow considered as laminar when Re 500 and turbulent when Re 2000 . The Reynolds number for transition flow is then calculated by Re average velocity and v is the kinematic viscosity.

VR

. Where V is the

Nor Alias - BAA 2723 Hydraulics

Page 12