Igneous Rocks

"Igneous" comes from the Latin word for fire, and refers to rocks that formed from molten material. Igneous rocks can be extrusive or intrusive. They are classified based on their texture and composition.

Topics:
1. Extrusive and intrusive 2. Classification 3. Common igneous rocks
Extrusive and Intrusive (Part 1)

Extrusive Rocks
Extrusive igneous rocks form on the earths surface. Lava flows form from volcanic eruptions.

Pahoehoe lava flow (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Glowing lava (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Lava flows are a type of extrusive igneous rock. This lava, from Hawaii, is called pahoehoe because of its smooth, shiny, ropy texture.

Extrusive Rocks (Continued)

Pyroclastic rocks form from the lithification of broken fragments of rock from volcanic eruptions.

Pyroclastic texture in a volcanic breccia (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

This rock is made up of broken pieces of volcanic material. It is called a volcanic breccia, and is a type of extrusive igneous rock. Flood basalts are very large lava flows that come from large fissures or cracks in the earth.

Formation, an ancient flood basalt in Virginia (Photograph by Stan Johnson)

Catoctin

The Catoctin Formation, shown here along the Blue Ridge Parkway, is an ancient flood basalt. This basalt flowed over large parts of Virginia about 570 million years ago.

Intrusive Rocks
Intrusive igneous rocks form below the earths surface. They are classified based on their shapes and relationships to the pre-existing or host rock. A dike is a tabular mass that cuts across surrounding rocks. A sill is a tabular mass that is parallel to planar structures (such as layers) in surrounding rocks. A batholith is a large body of irregular shape that cuts across surrounding rocks. Batholiths are commonly composed of granite.

 A stock is like a batholith, but smaller.

Intrusions (Diagram by Roy Sites)

This diagram shows the different kinds of igneous intrusions. Note that the dike, batholith, and stock cut across the layers whereas the sill is parallel to the layers.
Classification

The classification of igneous rocks is based on texture and composition. Texture is the description of the size, shape, and arrangement of the mineral grains in a rock. Composition refers to the types of minerals that make up the rock.
Texture (Part 1)

Texture is determined mainly by the cooling rate of magma. Slow cooling occurs deep within the earth, and produces aphaneritic texture. Phaneritic means that mineral grains are large enough to be seen with the naked eye.

Phaneritic texture in diorite (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Phaneritic rocks, like this diorite, have mineral grains large enough to be seen with the naked eye. Rapid cooling occurs near or on the earths surface, and produces aphanitic or glassy texture. Aphanitic means that mineral grains are too small to be seen with the naked eye.

photograph by Phyllis Newbill, right photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

(Left

Aphanitic rocks, like this andesite (left) and basalt (right) have mineral grains too small to be seen with the naked eye.

Texture (Part 2)

Other textural terms are used to describe igneous rocks. Porphyritic rocks contain mineral crystals of various sizes. Some grains are distinctly larger than others.

Porphyritic Texture (Photograph by Stan Johnson)

Porphyritic rocks, like this one, have mineral grains of very different sizes. Vesicular texture refers to volcanic rocks that contain holes called vesicles that were formed by gas bubbles in lava.

Scoria with vesicular texture (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

This igneous rock is called scoria. It has vesicular texture. The vesicles form from escaping gas bubbles in cooling lava. Pyroclastic rocks are composed of broken fragments and formed by volcanic eruptions.

Tuff, Mount Rogers Formation (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Rocks with pyroclastic texture are made of broken fragments. This rock, called tuff, consists of fine fragments created during a volcanic eruption. Larger fragments are present in this sample from the Mount Rogers area of Grayson County.

Pegmatitic texture refers to intrusive igneous rocks called pegmatites with unusually large mineral grains. Some individual grains can be several feet long.

(Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Pegmatites have very large crystals. This photograph shows a part of an Amelia County pegmatite on display at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington D.C. Crystals in the pegmatite can be several feet long.
Composition (Part 1)

Igneous rocks are also classified based on the minerals that make them up. Igneous minerals occur in groups called mineral assemblages.

Mafic Minerals
Dark-colored minerals such as olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, biotite, and calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar tend to occur together. They form dark-colored igneous rocks described as mafic.

Typical minerals found in mafic rocks (Photographs by Parvinder Sethi)

Mafic minerals include olivine (top left), pyroxene (top right), amphibole (bottom left), and biotite (bottom right). These minerals are dark-colored and often occur together in mafic igneous rocks.

(Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Gabbro, shown here, is an example of a mafic igneous rock. Note the dark, bluish-gray crystals of calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar.

Felsic Minerals
Light-colored minerals such as muscovite mica, orthoclase feldspar, sodium-rich feldspar, and quartz tend to occur together. They form light-colored igneous rocks described as felsic.

Typical minerals found in felsic rocks (Photographs by Parvindter Sethi)

Felsic minerals include muscovite (top left), sodium-rich plagioclase feldspar (top right), orthoclase feldspar (bottom left), and quartz (bottom right). These minerals are light-colored and often occur together in felsic igneous rocks.

Granite (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Granite, shown here, is an example of a felsic igneous rock. Light colored grains are quartz and orthoclase feldspar. Small black crystals are biotite mica.
Common Igneous Rocks (Part 1)

1. Granite 2. Gabbro 3. Diorite 4. Peridotite 5. Rhyolite 6. Basalt 7. Andesite 8. Obsidian 9. Scoria

10. Pumice 11. Tuff 12. Volcanic Breccia

Granite
Granite is a phaneritic, felsic igneous rock composed primarily of quartz and feldspar. Granite occurs in a variety of colors, but is usually white, light gray, or pink.

Granite (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Gabbro
Gabbro is a phaneritic, mafic igneous rock composed primarily of calcium-rich feldspar, pyroxene, and olivine.

Gabbro (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Diorite
Diorite is a medium-colored (or intermediate), phaneritic igneous rock. This sample is composed of light-colored orthoclase feldspar and quartz crystals and dark-colored hornblende.

Diorite (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Peridotite
Peridotite is a phaneritic, mafic igneous rock. composed entirely of olivine. This sample is

Peridotite (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Rhyolite
Rhyolite is an aphanitic, felsic igneous rock composed primarily of orthoclase feldspar and quartz. A few larger crystals of orthoclase feldspar are visible in this sample.

Rhyolite (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Basalt
Basalt is an aphanitic, mafic igneous rock. Its dark color is due to its dark-colored mineral composition.

Basalt (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Andesite
Andesite is an aphanitic, intermediate igneous rock. Larger, darkcolored crystals in this example of andesite are hornblende.

Andesite (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Obsidian
Obsidian is a glassy igneous rock. Extremely rapid cooling of volcanic material prevents crystal development and creates this volcanic glass.

Obsidian (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Scoria
Scoria is an igneous rock with vesicular texture. The vesicles, or holes, in the rock form from bubbles of volcanic gas. Scoria forms the crust of lava flows.

Scoria (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Pumice
Pumice is another volcanic igneous rock with vesicular texture. Pumice is less dense and lighter colored than scoria. It is commonly identified by its scratchy surface and low density.

Pumice (Photograph by Phyllis Newbill)

Tuff
Tuff is an igneous rock with pyroclastic texture. Tuffs consist of finegrained fragments created during volcanic eruptions. Some larger fragments are visible in this specimen.

Tuff (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Volcanic Breccia
Volcanic breccia is an igneous rock with large, angular fragments of volcanic material. This breccia probably formed during a violent volcanic eruption.

Volcanic breccia (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks form from the accumulation of sediment at earths surface. Most sedimentary rocks are layered. Sedimentary rocks can form from grains of pre-existing rocks (detritus), from chemical processes, or from organic processes. They are classified based on their texture and composition.

Topics:
1. Origins of sedimentary rocks 2. Classification 3. Common sedimentary rocks 4. Special sedimentary rocks
Origins of Sedimentary Rocks (Part 1)

Sedimentary rocks can form from grains of pre-existing rocks (detritus), from chemical processes, or from organic processes.

Detrital Sedimentary Rocks

Detrital sedimentary rocks form from detritus, the rock and mineral fragments that are transported by gravity, water, ice, or wind. Detrital sediments are classified by grain size. Detritus is classified by its grain size. Grains larger than 2 millimeters are called gravel. Grains between 1/16 mm and 2 mm are called sand. Grains smaller than 1/16 mm are in the silt andclay size ranges, often referred to as mud.

sediments (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Detrital

Albemarle County conglomerate (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

This Albemarle County conglomerate is an example of a detrital sedimentary rock. It contains gravel and sand grains. Note dime for scale.

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Chemical sedimentary rocks form from sediment particles that were inorganically precipitated from liquids. Examples include limestone and gypsum.

Microcrystalline limestone (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Microcrystalline limestone is an example of an inorganically precipitated sedimentary rock. This rock formed when water was saturated with calcium carbonate that precipitated as tiny crystals of calcite.

Organic Sedimentary Rocks

Organic sedimentary rocks form from the action of organisms. Examples include fossiliferous limestone and coal.

Left: Fossiliferous limestone (Photograph by Stan Johnson); right: Coal (Photograph by Phyllis Newbill)

Fossiliferous limestone and coal are two examples of organicallyformed sedimentary rocks. This fossiliferous limestone (left) is from Giles County, and was formed from the shells of many aquatic organisms. This coal (right) is from Wise County, and is the remains of ancient plants.
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks (Part 1)

Sedimentary rocks are classified based on their texture and composition. Detrital sediment has a clastic (broken) texture. Chemical and organic sediments have a non-clastic texture, and are classified based solely on their composition.

Clastic Texture
Clastic rocks are named for their grain size and shape. Coarse-grained (>2 mm) rocks with rounded grains are calledconglomerate. If the coarse-grains are angular, the rocks are calledbreccia.

Left: conglomerate; right: sedimentary breccia (Photographs by Stan Johnson)

Conglomerates (left) are coarse-grained sedimentary rocks with rounded grains. This sample is from Loudoun County. Breccias (right) are coarse-grained sedimentary rocks with angular

grains. This sample is from Culpeper County. Note quarters for scale. Medium-grained (1/16 mm to 2 mm) rocks are usually calledsandstone. Medium-grained rocks can be composed of quartz grains, feldspar grains (arkose), or rock fragments and clay (graywacke).

Sandstone (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Medium-sized grains in clastic sedimentary rocks form sandstone. This sample is a quartz sandstone. Fine-grained (<1/16 mm) rocks are generally called mudrocks. They include siltstone and shale.

from Grayson County (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Shale

Fine-grained sediments usually form shale. Shale is a detrital sedimentary rock that splits readily along thin bedding planes. This sample is from Grayson County in the Mount Rogers area.

Non-clastic Texture
Non-clastic rocks have chemical or organic origins. Names of nonclastic rocks are based on their compositions. A calcite-rich rock with many fossils is called a fossiliferous limestone. Microcrystalline quartz is called chert. The red variety of chert is called jasper. Dark gray to black chert is called flint. The carbon-rich rock formed from ancient plant material is called coal.

Left: fossiliferous limestone; right: chert (Photographs by Parvinder Sethi)

Coal (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Sedimentary rocks with non-clastic texture include fossiliferous limestone (above left), chert (above right) and coal (right). All three of these rock types can be found in Virginia.
Composition of Sedimentary Rocks (Part 1)

Sedimentary rocks are also classified based on their mineral composition. Common minerals in sedimentary rocks include: Quartz Calcite Clay minerals Dolomite Gypsum and halite Feldspar and mica

Quartz

Quartz is an extremely stable mineral, both mechanically and chemically. It is a major component of sandstone and chert. This photograph shows a sample of chert.

Chert (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Calcite
Calcite forms limestone through chemical and biological processes. Limestone is a very common sedimentary rock. The small gray mineral grains and the white fossil grains in this rock are both composed of calcite.

Fossiliferous limestone (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Clay Minerals
Clay minerals usually form fine-grained rocks like this shale. Clay minerals are a group of flaky silicate minerals that form from the weathering of pre-existing rocks and minerals. Clay is the single most abundant type of sediment.

Shale (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Dolomite
Dolomite forms the rock dolostone. It forms when some of the calcium in calcite is replaced by magnesium. The large white crystals on this sample are dolomite. The entire rock is dolostone.

Gypsum and Halite

Gypsum, shown left, and halite, shown right, are common examples of evaporitic sedimentary rocks. Both gypsum and halite form in extremely warm, arid environments.

Left: gypsum; right: halite (Photographs by Parvinder Sethi)

Feldspar and Mica

Feldspar and mica are common silicate minerals that are found in detrital sedimentary rocks.

Left: feldspar; right: mica (Photographs by Parvinder Sethi)

Common Sedimentary Rocks (Part 1)

Conglomerate Sandstone Shale Limestone Dolostone Chert

Conglomerate

Conglomerate is a detrital sedimentary rock with rounded, gravel-sized grains.

Conglomerate (Photograph by Stan Johnson)

This Albemarle County conglomerate is a good example. It contains gravel and sand grains. Note dime for scale.

Sandstone
Sandstone, shown with sand, is a detrital sedimentary rock with clastic texture. Sandstone can be identified by its sandy feel and grain size. This sample is a quartz sandstone. Note quarter for scale.

Sandstone (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Shale Shale is a detrital sedimentary rock with clastic texture. It can be identified by its fine grains and the way it splits apart along thin layers.

(Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Shale

This sample is from Grayson County in the Mount Rogers area.

Limestone
Limestone is a very common sedimentary rock. It is often made up of various sizes of animal shells. Limestone fizzes with the application of dilute hydrochloric acid because it contains calcite.

Limestone (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Dolostone
Dolostone is a common sedimentary rock similar to limestone. It is typically a dull gray. It can be identified by scratching the surface and exposing the scratches to dilute hydrochloric acid. Only the scratches on dolostone will fizz.

Dolostone (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Chert
Chert is a chemical sedimentary rock composed of microcrystalline quartz. In its gray form, it is called flint. It makes sparks when struck against steel.

Chert (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Special Sedimentary Rocks

There are many types of sedimentary rocks. The sedimentary rocks listed here are interesting or have economic importance. Travertine is a calcite-rich rock found in cave formations. Tufa is a porous rock formed near calcareous springs.

Stalactites (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Travertine is the rock that makes up most cave deposits, including the stalactites in this picture. Deposits that form this way are also calleddripstone. Chalk is a kind of limestone made of a mixture of calcite-rich and silica-rich organic remains. Coquina is a kind of limestone made of weakly cemented, broken animal shells. Coquinas form in beach and shallow water environments where waves break apart animal shells.

Coquina (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Coal is a biochemical sedimentary rock made up of compacted ancient vegetation formed in swamps.

Coal (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Dolomite (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic comes from the Latin words for changed form, and refers to rocks that formed by changing pre-existing rocks with heat, pressure, or chemical activity that occurs under conditions of heat and pressure. Metamorphic rocks are classified based on their texture and composition.

Topics:
1. Agents of metamorphic change 2. Classification: Foliated Textures, Non-foliated textures, andComposition 3. Common metamorphic rocks
AGENTS OF METAMORPHIC CHANGE

 The range of temperatures at which metamorphic activity takes place is between 300 and 1470 degrees Fahrenheit. Heat sources include magma, geothermal heat, and friction along faults. Pressure sources include the weight of overlying rocks deep in the earth. Shear pressure in fault zones can metamorphose rocks at shallower depths. Chemical activity is usually caused by water at higher temperatures and pressures. Water acts to dissolve pre-existing rocks, to transport dissolved materials, and to catalyze chemical changes.
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks (Part 1)

Metamorphic rocks are classified based on their texture and composition. Metamorphic textures can be foliated or non-foliated. 1. Foliated texture 2. Non-foliated texture 3. Composition

Foliated Textures
A foliated texture is caused by pressure. Mineral grains from preexisting rocks are oriented parallel to each other or organized into distinctive bands during metamorphosis. Examples of foliated textures include slaty, phyllitic, schistose, and gneissic. Slaty Texture Rocks with a slaty texture are fine-grained. They have dull surfaces and split apart easily.

slate (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Red

Rocks with slaty texture, like this red slate, split apart easily. Grains in slaty rocks are too small to see with the naked eye. Phyllitic Texture Phyllitic rocks have very small grains and shiny, crenulated (crinkled) surfaces. They also split apart easily.

(Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Phyllite

Rocks with phyllitic texture, like this green phyllite, are slightly more metamorphosed than those with slaty texture. This sample has weak crenulation bands on its surface.

Foliated Textures (Continued)

Schistose Texture Schistose rocks have visible grains. They are most commonly made up of platy minerals like mica.

Schist (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Rocks with schistose texture, like this garnet schist, are more metamorphosed than those with phyllitic texture. Schists can form from a variety of parent rocks. Gneissic Texture Gneissic rocks have minerals separated into light and dark bands.

(Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Gneiss

Non-Foliatied Texture
Non-foliated metamorphic rocks appear massive or granular without the characteristic parallel mineral grains in foliated rocks. Non-foliated metamorphic rocks are classified based primarily on their composition. Marble, quartzite, and soapstone are examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks.

Left: marble (photograph by Stan Johnson); right: quartzite (photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Marble (left) and quartzite (right) are non-foliated metamorphic rocks. This marble sample is from Albemarle County. Quartzite is mined in Wythe County.

Composition
Common minerals in metamorphic rocks include quartz, feldspar, mica, calcite, and hornblende. Index minerals in metamorphic rocks indicate how much the original rock was metamorphosed, called the grade of metamorphism.

Index Minerals minerals include chlorite, epidote, garnet, staurolite, kyanite and sillimanite. Fine-grained crystals of chlorite (not visible) give this slate its green color. Chlorite is a complex silicate mineral formed during low-grade metamorphism.

(Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Slate

Green crystals of epidote are visible in this sample of unakite. Epidote is a complex silicate mineral formed during low- to medium-grade metamorphism.

Unakite (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Classification of Metamorphic Rocks (Part 5)

Dark and red-brown crystals of garnet in schist indicate mediumgrade metamorphism. Garnet is an aluminum-rich silicate mineral.

Schist (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Elongated brown crystals of staurolite in schist indicate medium- to high-grade metamorphism. Staurolite is commonly known as fairy stone. Staurolite contains iron, magnesium, aluminum, and silicate.

Staurolite (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Bladed blue crystals of kyanite in schist indicate high-grade metamorphism. Kyanite is made up of aluminum and silicate.

(Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Kyanite

Common Metamorphic Rocks, Part 1

Slate Phyllite Schist Gneiss Amphibolite Marble Quartzite Soapstone

Slate
Slate is a fine-grained, low-grade metamorphic rock. It forms from the metamorphism of the sedimentary rock shale.

(Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Slate

Phyllite
Phyllite is a fine-grained, low-grade metamorphic rock. It is slightly more metamorphosed than slate, and tends to have a crenulated or crinkled surface.

(Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Phyllite

1.2 Mineral Identification 1.3 Major Mineral Groups 1.4 Selected Virginia Minerals 1.5 Tips for Mineral Collecting

Schist
Schist is a medium- to high-grade metamorphic rock. It is usually shiny and crinkled.

Kyanite Schist (Photograph by Stan Johnson)

This sample is from Buckingham County.

Gneiss
Gneiss is a high-grade metamorphic rock characterized by alternating bands of dark and light minerals.

Gneisses (Photographs by Stan Johnson)

These samples are from Hanover County (left) and Buckingham County (right).

Amphibolite
Amphibolite is a hornblende-rich foliated metamorphic rock that indicates medium- to high-grade metamorphism.

Amphibolite (Photograph by Bill Henika)

This amphibolite is from Halifax County.

Marble
Marble is a non-foliated metamorphic rock formed from the metamorphism of limestone or dolomite.

(Photographs by Stan Johnson)

These marble samples are from Appomattox County (left) and Albemarle County (right).

Quartzite
Quartzite is a non-foliated metamorphic rock formed from the metamorphism of quartz sandstone.

(Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Soapstone
Soapstone is a non-foliated metamorphic rock composed of talc. Soapstone is a favorite of sculptors because of its softness.

Soapstone (Photograph by Parvinder Sethi)

Types of Rocks Igneous Rocks- form when hot, liquid rock (magma) cools and solidifies Extrusive igneous rock- forms from magma that erupts onto the earths surface. It is common around volcanoes. It cools quickly on the surface and contains very small or no crystals. Intrusive igneous rock- forms when magma cools below the earths surface. The magma cools slowly and forms large, visible crystals. Sedimentary Rocks- form at or near the Earths surface. It forms without the heat and pressure that are involved in the formation of igneous or metamorphic rocks. Formed of weathered rock/mineral fragments, crystallized minerals, or from the remains of once-living plants and animals. Metamorphic Rocks- Forms when rocks are exposed to intense heat, pressure, or a combination of both. Contact metamorphism- When a rock changes to a metamorphic rock through heating from nearby magma Regional metamorphism- When a rock changes to a metamorphic rock due to the pressure from the Earth above it.

A Diagram of the Rock Cycle You have a few other science-related items to keep in mind this week: 1. Your three choices from your Hard Rock Cafe menu are due Friday. 2. A science journal entry will be due Thursday. Please write at least five thoughtful sentences in response to the prompt. 3. As you finish your menu sheet, I will have three choice labs associated with the rock cycle that you are more than welcome to explore. Please remember that only two people at a time can work on each lab, copy the lab procedures and answer questions on a piece of notebook paper to be submitted to me, and return the lab materials to their original condition once the lab is completed. 4. Ms. Diane has a really fun and tasty activity she would like to share with you where you will make edible representations of sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks! Finally, since Friday is the last Friday of the month, it is a dress down day! But, I want everyone to wear a smile that day, too because it is also Fall picture day! Mr. Charles just gave word that picture day will be rescheduled. BUT, Friday is still a dress down day! See you Monday morning, Mr. Trent