Chapter 3: Cell Structure and Function 3.

1 The Cellular Level of Organization -cell theory: states that all organisms are made up of cells and that cells come only from preexisting cells -cells marks boundary between nonliving and living Cell Size -nutrients enter a cell and wastes exit a cell at its surface -the amount of surface represents the ability to get material in and out of the cell -large cell requires more nutrients/produces more wastes than a small cell -volume represents the needs of the cell -yet as cells get larger in volume, appropriate amount of surface area decreases (surface area/volume ratio) -small cells likely to have adequate surface area for exchange of wastes for nutrients -cell division restores amount of surface area needed for adequate exchange in materials -cells that specialize in absorption have modifications that greatly increase the surface area/volume -columnar cells along the surface of the intestinal wall have surface foldings called microvilli (microvillus), which in crease their surface area -surface-area-to-volume considerations require that cells stay small 3.2 Eukaryotic Cells -Eukaryotic cells: have a nucleus -a large structure that controls the workings of the cell, contains genes Outer Boundaries of Animal and Plant Cells -all cells (plant and animal) surrounded by plasma membrane -phospholipid bilayer in which protein molecules are embedded -plasma membrane: a living boundary that separates contents of cell from surrounding environment -inside cell, nucleus is surrounded by cytoplasm (semifluid medium, contains organelles) -plasma membrane regulates entrance and exit of molecules in/out of cytoplasm -plant cells have a permeable but protective cell wall in addition to plasma membrane -also have both primary and secondary cell wall -main constituent of primary cell wall is cellulose molecules -cellulose molecules: form fibrils that lie at right angles to one another (added strength) -cell wall sometimes forms inside primary cell wall, secondary cell walls contain lignin -substance that makes them even stronger than primary cell walls Organelles of Animal and Plant Cells -animal/plant cells contain organelles, small bodies that have specific structure and function -membrane compartmentalizes cell so that various cell functions are kept separate from one another -all organelles of cell function simultaneously, chemicals are taken up by cell and then processed by organelles -plant cells have chloroplasts, animal cells have centrioles The Nucleus -stores genetic information that determines the characteristics of the body's cells and their metabolic functioning

-every cell contains a complex copy of genetic information, but each cell type has certain genes, or segments of DNA, turned on and/or off -activated DNA with RNA acting as an intermediary, specifies the sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis -proteins of a cell determine its structure and the functions it can perform -Chromatin: a threadlike material that undergoes coiling into rodlike structures called chromosomes just before cell divides, contains DNA and much protein and some RNA is immersed in semifluid medium called nucleoplasm -difference in pH between cytoplasm ad nucleoplasm, different composition -nucleoli (nucleolus) where another type of RNA (ribosomal RNA -rRNA) is produced and joins with proteins to form subunits of ribosomes (small bodies in cytoplasm that contain rRNA and proteins -nucleus separated from cytoplasm by a double membrane known as nuclear envelope which is continuous with endoplasmic reticulum -has nuclear pores to permit the passage of proteins into nucleus and ribosomal subunits out of nucleus Chromatin: DNA and proteins Nucleolus: chromatin and ribosomal subunits Nuclear envelope: double membrane with pores Ribosomes -composed of two subunits; one large, one small -each has it own mix or protein/rRNA -protein synthesis occurs on ribosomes, synthesized proteins by cytoplasmic ribosomes are used in cell (mitochondria, chloroplasts), those produced by endoplasmic reticulum ribosomes may be secreted from cell -they occur free within cytoplasm singly or in groups (polyribosomes) -often attached to endoplasmic reticulum Ribosomes are small organelles where protein synthesis occurs. Ribosomes occur in the cytoplasm both singly and in groups (polyribosomes).. Numerous ribosomes are attached to ER. The Endomembrane System -consists of nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and several vesicles (tiny membranous sacs) -system compartmentalizes the cell so that particular enzymatic reactions are restricted to specific regions -membranes are connected by direct physical contact and/or by the transfer of vesicles from one part to the other The Endoplasmic Reticulum -a complicated system of membranous channels and saccules (flattened vesicles), is physically continuous with the outer membrane of nuclear envelope -rough ER has ribosomes on the side of membrane that faces cytoplasm, here proteins are synthesized and enter ER interior where processing and modification begin -smooth ER synthesizes phospholipids that occur in membranes, has various other functions depending on particular cell -forms vesicles in which large molecules are transported to other parts of cell ER is involved in protein synthesis (rough ER) and various other processes such as lipid synthesis (smooth ER). Molecules that are produced or modified in the ER are eventually enclosed in vesicles

that often transport them to the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi Apparatus -consists of a stack of 3-20 slightly curved saccules -animal cells: one side of stack directed toward ER, other side directed toward plasma membrane, vesicles frequently seen at edges of saccules -apparatus receives protein and or lipid-filled vesicles that bud from ER -contains enzymes that modify proteins and lipids (ex. It can add a chain of sugars to proteins, making them glycoproteins and glycoplipids -molecules found in plasma membrane) -vesicles that leave apparatus move to different locations of cell, some proceed to plasma membrane where they discharge contents Golgi apparatus processes, packages, and distributes molecules about or from the cell. It is also said to be involved in secretion. Lysosomes -membrane-bounded vesicles produced by Golgi apparatus in animal/plant cells -contain hydrolytic digestive enzymes -macromolecules brought into cell by vesicle formation at plasma membrane -when lysosomes fuse with such vesicles, its contents are digested by lysosomal enzymes into simpler subunits that enter cytoplasm, bacteria are digested -part of cells are digested by lysosomes (autodigestion) -cell rejuvenation and programmed cell destruction takes place Lysosomes are produced by Golgi apparatus, and their hydrolytic enzymes digest macromolecules from various sources. Peroxisomes -similar to lysosomes, membrane-bounded vesicles that enclose enzymes -enzymes synthesized by free ribosomes and imported directly into peroxisome RH2 + O2 -> R + H2O2 -hydrogen peroxide (toxic) broken down to water, oxygen by another peroxisomal enzyme, catalase -abundant in cells that metabolize lipids and liver cells that metabolize alcohol (detoxify) -in plants, they oxidize fatty acids into molecules that can be converted to sugars needed photosynthesis: oxygen -> carbon dioxide Vacuoles -large membranous sac, larger than vesicle -larger in plant cells than animal cells -store substances -water, sugars, salts, pigments, toxic molecules -present in unicellular protozoans are specialized, include contractile vacuoles for ridding cell of excess water, digestive vacuoles for breaking down nutrients The organelles of endomembrane system: Endoplasmic Reticulum synthesis and modification and transport of proteins and other substances Rough ER: protein synthesis Smooth ER: lipid synthesis in particular

Golgi apparatus: processing, packaging, ad distribution of protein molecules Lysosomes: intracellular digestion Peoxisomes: various metabolic tasks Vacuoles: storage areas Energy-Related Organelles -chloroplast, mitochondria -two eukaryotic membranous organelles that convert energy to a form that cell can use -chloroplast us solar energy to synthesize carbohydrates which are broken down in mitochondria to produce ATP molecules Photosynthesis: light energy + carbon dioxide + water -> carbohydrates + oxygen Cellular respiration -chemical energy of carbohydrates is converted to ATP carbohydrates + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water + energy energy for cell = ATP molecules Chloroplast -allow cells to produce their own organic food -belong to plastids -amyloplasts (roots), chromoplasts (leaves) -contains chlorophyll (green pigment) -bounded to two membranes that enclose fluid-filled space called stroma, within is a membrane system organized into interconnected sacs thylakoids -stroma contains DNA, ribosomes, enzymes that synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water Mitochondria -in plant and animal cells -bound by a double membrane, inner fluid-filled space is called matrix which contains DNA, ribosomes, enzymes which break down carbohydrate products, releasing energy that is used for ATP production -inner membrane of mitochondria form = cristae which provides greater surface area to accommodate protein complexes and other participants that produce ATP Mitochondria and chloroplast able to make some proteins, other imported from cytoplasm. Chloroplasts and mitochondria are membranous organelles whose structure lends itself to the processes that occur within them. The Cytoskeleton -a network of interconnected filaments and tubules that extends from nucleus to plasma membrane in eukaryotic cells -elements undergo rapid assembly and disassembly by monomers continuously entering/leaving polymer -contains: actin filaments, intermediate filaments, microtubles Actin Filaments -long extremely thin fibres that occur in bundles or meshlike networks -contains two chains of globular actin monomers twisted (helical manner) -play structural role when form dense complex web under plasma membrane -anchored by special

protein -accounts for formation of pseudopods extensions that allow certain cells to move in amoeboid fashion -interact with motor molecules (proteins that move along actin filaments or microtubules attaching, detaching and reattaching) Microtubules -small hollow cylinders made from globular protein called tubulin -assembly under the control of centrosome (near nucleus) -help maintain shape of the cell and as tracks along which organelles can move, motor molecule myosin is associated with actin filaments -kinesin proteins specialized to move one kind of vesicle or cellular organelle Intermediate Filaments -size between actin filaments and microtubules -ropelike assembly of fibrous polypeptides that support nuclear envelope and plasma membrane Cytoskeleton contains actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. These maintain cell shape and allow organelles to move with cytoplasm. Sometimes they are also involved in movement of cell itself. Centrioles -short cylinders with a 9 + 0 pattern of microtubule triplets, may be involved in microtubule organization and in the formation of cilia and flagella Cilia and Flagella -hair like projections, with a 9 + 0 pattern of microtubules are involved in movement of cells 3.3 Prokaryotic Cells Bacteria are prokaryotic cells with these constant features: Outer boundary: cell wall, plasma membrane Cytoplasm: ribosomes, thylakoids (cyanobacteria), innumerable enzymes Nucleoid: chromosome (DNA only) 3.4 Evolution of the Eukaryotic Cell -prokaryotes entered by endocytosis, a symbiotic relationship formed -endosymbiotic hypothesis -mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar to bacteria (size and structure) -both bounded by double membrane -contain limited amount of genetic material divide by splitting (DNA = circular loop) -most proteins produced by eukaryotic host, however have own ribosomes (resemble bacteria) -RNA base sequence of ribosomes suggest eubacterial origin -flagella of eukaryotes derived from elongated bacterium that attached to host cell According to endosymbiotic hypothesis, heterotrophic bacteria became mitochondria and cyanobacteria became chloroplast after being taken up by precursors to modern-day eukaryotic cells.