Carburetion and Fuel Injectors

1
1
Internal combustion Engines:
Carburetor, Fuel injection, valve timing
Dr. Primal Fernando
wpd@pdn.ac.lk
Ph: (081) 2393608
CarburetorsandFuelinjection
Fuelinjection isasystemformixingfuelwithairinaninternalcombustion
engine.Ithasbecometheprimaryfueldeliverysystemusedingasoline
automotiveengines,havingalmostcompletelyreplacedcarburetorsinthelate
1980s.
ThecarburetorwasinventedbyKarlBenz(founderofMercedesBenz)in1885
andpatentedin1886.
Carburetorsweretheusualfueldeliverymethodforalmostallgasoline(petrol)
2
y g (p )
fuelledenginesupuntilthelate1980s,whenfuelinjectionbecamethepreferred
methodofautomotivefueldelivery.IntheU.S.market,thelastcarburetedcars
werethe1990OldsmobileCustomCruiser,BuickEstateWagon,andSubaru
Justy,andthelastcarburetedlighttruckwasthe1994Isuzu.Elsewhere,Lada
carsusedcarburetorsuntil1996.Amajorityofmotorcyclesstillusecarburetors
duetolowercostandthrottleresponseproblemswithearlyinjectionsetups,but
asof2005,manynewmodelsarenowbeingintroducedwithfuelinjection.
Carburetorsarestillfoundinsmallenginesandinolderorspecialized
automobiles,suchasthosedesignedforstockcarracing.
Afuelinjectionsystemisdesignedandcalibratedspecificallyforthetype(s)of
fuelitwillhandle.Mostfuelinjectionsystemsareforgasolineordiesel
applications.
3
GasReviewNovember1913
Usedontractors,boats,andstationary
engines,includingtheWaterlooBoy
andModelDtractors
GasReviewSeptember1917
4
Well,letsseeifwecanfigureitout
CarburetorTheory
ItsallduetoAirPressure(orlackthereof)
Closetosealevelpressureis14.7psi
Airhasweight 88lbsina12x12x8ftroom
Vacuumisapressurelessthan14.7psi
Oftenmeasuredininchesofmercury
5
y
14.7psi~30inHg
Asengineruns,intakestrokescreate
vacuumorlowerairpressureinmanifold
Normal~10psi(~20inHg)
Withthrottleplateopen,carburetorthroat
exposedtomanifoldpressure
CarburetorTheory
Venturi
Whatisit?
WindblowingindowntownChicago
alwaysstrongerinthesmallerareasbetween2
b ld
6
buildings
Rivercurrents
alwaysfasterinanarrower,shallowerplacethan
deep,widepools
2
CarburetorTheory
7
Carburetorsoperateontheventurieffect
Theventuriisanarrowingofthebore
CarburetorTheory
Whatcausesairflowthroughcarburetor?
Intakestrokeofpistoncreatesvacuum
Intakevalveopen,transmitsvacuumtothrottleplate
Positionofthrottleplatedeterminesairflow
Closed no flow high manifold vacuum
8
Closed noflow highmanifoldvacuum
Open fullflow lowmanifoldvacuum
Air(at~atmosphericpressure)flowsfromaircleanerside,
throughventuri,pastthrottleplate,throughmanifoldand
intakevalve,intocylinder
ModelArunningat975rpmflowsabout70cfm (cubicfeetper
minute)
Asairflowsthroughventuri,pressuredecreasesin
venturi
BernoullisLawtellsusasAreadecreases,velocity
increasesand
Asvelocityincreases,pressuredecreases
Ai f l i b l i l t h i
CarburetorTheory
9
Airpressureonfuelinbowlisalways~atmospheric
Aspressuredifferencebetween1)fuelinbowland
2)attipofnozzle(locatedinventuri)increases,fuel
flowincreasesfromnozzle
Throttleopens,moreairflow,greaterP,morefuel
flow
Throttlecloses,lessairflow,lessP,lessfuelflow
Importantfactors
Amountofvacuumcreatedbyintakestroke
Lessvacuumif
Intakevalveguidesleakair
Exhaustvalveleaksair
Pi i l k i
CarburetorTheory
10
Pistonringsleakair
Manifoldgasketleaksair
Positionofthrottleplate
Determinesairflowthroughcarburetor
Determinesdifferenceinpressureonfuelinbowlandat
tipofnozzleinventuri
Greaterdifference morefuelflow
CarburetorTheory
Tofurtherregulatethemixture,twoairregulatorsor
butterflyvalvesarealsoadded:
Theserestricttheamountofairflowthroughthe
carburetoreithermanuallyorautomatically.
This action decreases the power and speed and
11
Thisactiondecreasesthepowerandspeedand
therichnessofthemixturewithintheengine.
Throttlevalvesrestrictairmovementatallspeedsand
aregenerallymanuallycontrolled.
Chokevalvesrestrictairmovementatstartupto
allowforarichermixtureandcanbemanuallyor
automaticallyengaged.
Carburetortypes
VenturitypeCarburetor
P+1/2 V
2
=Constant
Bernoulli Effect:
Valve Stem
Fuel Inlet
Throttle Plate
Air/Fuel Mixture To Engine
Atomized Fuel
12
Ref. Obert
Constant level is
maintained in bowl -as
float moves down,
valve stem moves down,
allowing more fuel into
bowl, float moves up and
closes valve
Float
Metering Orifice
Choke Plate
Fuel
Nozzle
InletAir
Bowl
Venturi
3
% BoreOpen
0 0.0
10 1.5
14 3.0
17 4.4
24 8.6
30 13.4

13
33 16.1
41 25.0
45 29.3
60 50.0
75 75.0
84 90.0
90 100
%Boreopen=b(1 cos)x100
BoreOpenisdifferencebetween
bore
sizeandareaofthrottleplate
b=radiusofboresize
TheThrottle
Thethrottleisaround
discmountedona
shaftbeyondthemain
fuelnozzleinthe
14
carburetor.
Itregulatesthe
amountofairfuel
mixtureenteringthe
cylinder.
TheChoke
Thechokeisarounddiscmountedonashaftlocatedat
theintakeendofthecarburetor.
Sincecoldfuelishardtovaporize,thechokeisused
duringcoldenginestartstoprovidearichmixturetothe
b d h d
15
carburetorinordertogettheenginestarted.
NaturalDraftCarburetor
Thiscarburetorisused
wherethereislittle
spaceontopofthe
16
engine.Theair
horizontallyintothe
manifold.
UpdraftCarburetors
Thistypeisplacedlow
ontheengineanduse
agravityfedfuel
supply.Inother
17
words,thetankis
abovethecarburetor
andthefuelfallstoit.
DowndraftCarburetors
Thiscarburetoroperateswith
lowerairvelocitiesandlarger
passages.Thisisbecause
gravityassiststheairfuel
mixtureflowtothecylinder.
18
Thedowndraftcarburetorcan
providelargevolumesoffuel
whenneededforhighspeed
andhighpoweroutput.
4
DiaphragmCarburetors
Thistypedoesnothaveafloat,
ratherthedifferencebetween
atmosphericpressureandthe
vacuumcreatedintheengine
pulsatesaflexiblediaphragm.
19
pu a e a e i e iap ag
Thepulsationofthediaphragm
takesplaceoneveryintakeand
compressionstroke.
MixtureRequirements
Engineinductionandfuelsystemmustpreparea
fuelairmixturethatsatisfiestherequirementsof
theengineoveritsentireoperatingregime.
Optimum airfuel ratio for an SI engine is that which
20
OptimumairfuelratioforanSIengineisthatwhich
gives
1. requiredpoweroutput
2. withlowestfuelconsumption
3. consistentwithsmoothandreliableoperation
21 22
CalculationofAirfuelRatio
+ + + + = + + + +
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
ot
2
out
out out out out in
2
in
in in in in
gZ
2
h m W Q gZ
2
h m W Q
u u

( ) ( ) + + + + =
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
in
2
in
in in ot
2
out
out out in out out in
gZ
2
h m gZ
2
h m W W Q Q
u u

Energybalanceforasteadyflowsystem
23
|
.
\
|
.
\
2 2
Generalform + + + + =
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
in
2
in
in in ot
2
out
out out
gZ
2
h m gZ
2
h m W Q
u u

Note:Intheaboveequation,heatinputtothesystemandworkoutputfrom
thesystemispositive(+)andheatoutputfromthesystemandworkinput
tothesystemisnegative().
+ + + + =
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
in
2
in
in in ot
2
out
out out
gZ
2
h m gZ
2
h m W Q
u u

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
in
in
in ot
out
out
gZ h gZ h w q
2 2
2 2
u u
Applyingthesteadyflowenergyequationto
i A A d B B i fl f i
24
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
1
2
1
1 2
2
2
2
2 2
gZ h gZ h w q
u u
Here,q andwaretheheatandworktransfersfromtheentrancetothe
throatandh andv standforenthalpyandvelocityrespectively.
Ifweassumereversibleadiabaticconditions,andthereisnowork
transfer,q=0,w=0,andifapproachvelocityv
1
0weget
sectionsAAandBBperunitmassflowofair:
5
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
2
0
2
2
1 2
u
h h
( )
2 1 2
2 h h v =
write can we hence T c h
get we gas perfect a be to assumed is air If
p
=
25
( )
2 1 2
2 T T c v
p
p
=
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
k
k
k
k
p
p
T T T
p
p
T
T
then
isentropic be to throat to inlet from flow Assume
1
1
2
1 2 1
1
1
2
1
2
1
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

k
k
p
p
T T T
1
1
2
1 2 1
1
( )
2 1 2
2 T T c v
p
=
(
(
|
|
|

k
k
p
1
26
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
k
p
p
p
T c v
1
2
1 2
1 2
Bythecontinuityequationwecanwritedownthetheoreticalmass
flowrateofair
2 2 2 1 1 1
.
v A v A ma = = '
where A
1
and A
2
are the crosssectional areas at the air inlet (point 1)
and venturi throat (point 2).
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

k
k
p
p
p
T c v
1
1
2
1 2
1 2
2 2 2 1 1 1
.
v A v A ma = = '
(velocity)
27
To calculate the mass flow rate of air at the throat, we have assumed the
flow to be isentropic till the throat so the equation relating p and v (or
) can be used.
k k
v p v p
2 2 1 1
=
k k
p p
2
2
1
1

=
k
p
p
1
1
2
1 2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
(specificvolume)
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

k
k
p
p
p
T c v
1
1
2
1 2
1 2
2 2 2 1 1 1
.
v A v A ma = = '
1
28
k
p
p
1
2
1 2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= '

k
k
p
k
a
p
p
T c A
p
p
m
1
1
2
1 2
1
1
2
1
.
1 2
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= '

k
k
p
k
a
p
p
T c A
p
p
m
1
1
2
1 2
1
1
2
1
.
1 2
For a perfect
gas we have 1
1
1
RT
p
=
29
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= '

k
k
p
k
a
p
p
T c A
RT
p
p
p
m
1
1
2
1 2
1
1
1
1
2
.
1 2
rearrangingtheaboveequationwehave
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= '
+
k
k
k
p a
p
p
p
p
c
T R
p A
m
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1 2
.
2
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= '
+
k
k
k
p a
p
p
p
p
c
T R
p A
m
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1 2
.
2
Since the fluid flowing in the intake is air, we can put in the
approximate values of R = 287 J/kgK, c
p
= 1005 J/kgK and k = 1.4 at 300K.
71 1 43 1
30
|
1
1 2
71 . 1
1
2
43 . 1
1
2
1
1 2
.
1562 . 0
1562 . 0
T
p A
p
p
p
p
T
p A
m
a
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= '
71 . 1
1
2
43 . 1
1
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
p
p
p
p
| where
6
|
1
1 2
71 . 1
1
2
43 . 1
1
2
1
1 2
.
1562 . 0
1562 . 0
T
p A
p
p
p
p
T
p A
m
a
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= '
71 . 1
1
2
43 . 1
1
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
p
p
p
p
|
31
Here, pressure p is in N/m
2
, area A is in m
2
,and temperature T is in K.
If we take the ambient temperature T
1
= 300Kand ambient pressure
p
1
= 10
5
N/m
2
, then
|
2
.
8 . 901 A m
a
= '
Above equation gives the theoretical mass flow rate of air. The actual
mass flow rate, can be obtained by multiplying the equation by the
coefficient of discharge for the venturi, C
d,a
.
.
.
,
a
a
a d
m
m
C
'
=
|
1
1 2
,
.
1562 . 0
T
p A
C m
a d a
=
The coefficient of discharge and area are both constant for a given
venturi, thus
71 . 1
1
2
43 . 1
1
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
p
p
p
p
|
32
venturi, thus
|
1
1
.
T
p
m
a

Sincewehavetodeterminetheairfuelratio,wenowcalculatethe
fuelflowrate.
|
1
1
.
T
p
m
a

Thefuelisaliquidbeforemixingwiththeair,itcanbetakentobe
incompressible.
WecanapplyBernoullisequation
betweentheatmospheric
conditionsprevailing atthetopof
thefuelsurfaceinthefloatbowl,
33
e ue su ace i e oa bo ,
whichcorrespondstopoint1and
thepointwherethefuelwillflow
out,attheventuri,which
correspondstopoint2.
Fuel flow will take place because of the drop in pressure at point 1
due to the venturi effect.
(Constant) C = + + gz
2
V P
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
2 2
gz
V P
gz
V P
+ + = + +

or
|
1
1
.
T
p
m
a

Fuel flow will take place because of
the drop in pressure at point 1 due
to the venturi effect.
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
2 2
gz
V P
gz
V P
+ + = + +

2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
gz
V P P
+ + =

34
(1)
(2)
gz
V P P f
f f
+ =
2
2
2 1

where
f
is the density of the fuel in kg/m
3
, V
f
is the velocity of the fuel
at the exit of the fuel nozzle (fuel jet), and z is the depth of the jet exit
below the level of fuel in the float bowl. This quantity must always be
above zero otherwise fuel will flow out of the jet at all times. The value
of z is usually of the order of 10 mm.
gz
V p p f
f f
+ =
2
2
2 1

From above equation we can obtain an expression for the fuel velocity at
the jet exit as
(
(
= gz
p p
V
f
2 1
2
35
(
Applyingthecontinuityequationforthefuel,wecanobtainthe
theoreticalmassflowrate,
( ) gz p p A
V A m
f f f
f f f f

=
= '
2 1
.
2
where A
f
is the exit area of the fuel jet in m
2
. If C
d,f
is the
coefficient of discharge of the fuel nozzle (jet) given by
.
.
,
f
f
f d
m
m
C
'
= ( )
.
2 1 ,
2 gz p p A C m
f f f f d f
=
36
f
Since .
.
f
a
m
m
F
A
Fuel
Air
= =
( ) gz p p T
p
A
A
C
C
F
A
f f f f d
a d

|

=
2 1 1
1 2
,
,
2
1562 . 0
|
1
1 2
,
.
1562 . 0
T
p A
C m
a d a
=
71 . 1
1
2
43 . 1
1
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
p
p
p
p
|
7
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
k
k
k
p
a d
a
p
p
p
p
c
T R
p A C
m
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1 2 ,
.
2
( )
.
2 1 ,
2 gz p p A C m
f f f f d f
=
1
1
1
RT
p
=
1 1
1
1
T p
R
=
1 1
1
1
T p
R
=
37
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
k
k
k
p a d a
p
p
p
p
c
R
p
p
R
A C m
1
1
2
2
1
2 1
1
1
2 ,
.
2
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
k
k
k
p a d a
p
p
p
p
c
R
p
A C m
1
1
2
2
1
2 1 1
2 ,
.
2
( )
.
2 1 ,
2 gz p p A C m
f f f f d f
=
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= '
+
k
k
k
p a d a
p
p
p
p
c
R
p
A C m
1
1
2
2
1
2 1 1
2 ,
.
2
(
(
|
|
|
|
|
|
+
k
k
k
p p c
1 2
.
1
1
.
=
=
R
c
R
c
c
R c c
p p
v
v p
38
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= '
p
a d a
p
p
p
p
R
c
p A C m
1
2
1
2
1 1 2 ,
2
1
1
1
=
=
k
k
R
c
c
R
k
p
p
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= '
+
k
k
k
a d a
p
p
p
p
k
k
p A C m
1
1
2
2
1
2
1 1 2 ,
.
1
2
( )
.
2 1 ,
2 gz p p A C m
f f f f d f
=
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
k
k
k
a d a
p
p
p
p
k
k
p A C m
1
1
2
2
1
2
1 1 2 ,
.
1
2
39
( ) gz p p A C
p
p
p
p
k
k
p A C
m
m
f f f f d
k
k
k
a d
f
a

(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
2 1 ,
1
1
2
2
1
2
1 1 2 ,
.
2
1
2
( ) gz p p A C
p
p
p
p
k
k
p A C
m
m
f f f f d
k
k
k
a d
f
a

(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
2 1 ,
1
1
2
2
1
2
1 1 2 ,
.
2
1
2
40
( )
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
k
k
k
f f f f d
a d
f
a
p
p
p
p
k
k
gz p p
p
A
A
C
C
m
m
1
1
2
2
1
2
2 1
1
2
1
1 2
,
,
.
1
2 1
p p p
a
= A Ifweput 1
1
2
1
p
p
p
p
a
=
A
and
( )
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
k
k
k
f f f f d
a d
f
a
p
p
p
p
k
k
gz p p
p
A
A
C
C
m
m
1
1
2
2
1
2
2 1
1
2
1
1 2
,
,
.
1
2 1
p p p
a
= A
1
1
2
1
p
p
p
p
a
=
A
41
(
( )
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
1 2
,
,
.
1
1
p
p
p
p
p
p
k
k
gz p
p
A
A
C
C
m
m
k
k
k
f a
a
f f f d
a d
f
a
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+

C
( )
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
1 2
,
,
.
1
1
p
p
p
p
p
p
k
k
gz p
p
A
A
C
C
m
m
k
k
k
f a
a
f f f d
a d
f
a
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+

42
( )
u
A
A
=
gz p
p
A
A
C
C
F
A
f a
a
f
a
f f d
a d

2
,
,
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
(
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= u
+
p
p
p
p
p
p
k
k
k
k
k
8
if we take T
1
= 300K and p
1
= 10
5
N/m
2
then
( ) gz p p A
A
C
C
F
A
f f f f d
a d

|

=
2 1
2
,
,
2
8 . 901
The coefficient of discharge represents the effect of all deviations from
the ideal onedimensional isentropic flow. It is influenced by many
43
factors of which the most important are:
1.Fluidmassflowrate,
2.Orificelengthtodiameterratio,
3.Orificeareatoapproacharearatio,
4.Orificesurfacearea,
5.Orificesurfaceroughness,
6.Orificeinletandexitchamfers,
7.Fluidspecificgravity,
8.Fluidviscosity,and
9.Fluidsurfacetension.
Airfuelrationeglectingcompressibilityofair
Ifweassumeairtobeincompressible,thenwecanapply
Bernoullisequationtoairflowalso.Sinceinitialvelocityis
assumedzero,wehave
2
2 2 1
v p p
Thus
44
2
2 2 1
a a
=

Thus
(

=
a
p p
v
2 1
2
2
Applyingthecontinuityequationforthefuel,wecanobtainthe
theoreticalmassflowrate,
( )
2 1 2 2 2
.
2 p p A C A m
a a a
= = '
where A
2
is the venturi in m
2
. If C
d,a
is the coefficient of discharge of the
venturi given by
.
m
45
. ,
a
a
a d
m
m
C
'
=
then ( )
.
2 1 2 ,
.
2 p p A C m
a a d
a =
Since
.
.
f
a
m
m
F
A
Fuel
Air
= =
( )
( ) gz p p
p p
A
A
C
C
F
A
f f
a
f f d
a d

=
2 1
2 1 2
,
,
( )
( )
p p A C A
a a d

=
2 1 2 ,
46
( ) gz p p A C F
f f f f d

2 1 ,
Ifweassumez=0,then
f
a
f f d
a d
A
A
C
C
F
A
2
,
,
=
The equivalence ratio, (ratio between stoichiometric air
fuel ratio to actual air fuel ratio)
A A
F
A
s
6 . 14
~
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
1 2
(
| | | |
+ k
( )
u
A
A
=
gz p
p
A
A
C
C
F
A
f a
a
f
a
f f d
a d

2
,
,
Typicalvaluefora
gasolineengine
47
2
1
2 ,
,
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
u
|
.
|
\
|
=
a
f
a
f f
a d
f d s
p
gz
A
A
C
C F
A
F F
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
(
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= u
p
p
p
p
p
p
k
k
k k
2
1
2 ,
,
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
u
|
.
|
\
|
=
a
f
a
f f
a d
f d s
p
gz
A
A
C
C F
A
Theeffectsofequivalenceratio
variations
Mixturerequirementatfullload:Completeutilizationofairto
obtainmaximumpower,wideoperationofthrottle,richof
stoichiometricmixtures,~1.1.
Mixturerequirementatpartloads:Partthrottle,diluteair
i i h i h d l d (EGR)
48
mixturewithexcessairorexhaustedgasrecycled(EGR)
(improvesthefuelconversionefficiency).
Theequivalentratioofthemixturedeliveredbyanelementary
carburetorisnotconstant.
9
Ap A C A
a d

2
( )
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
1 2
,
,
.
1
1
p
p
p
p
p
p
k
k
gz p
p
A
A
C
C
m
m
k
k
k
f a
a
f f f d
a d
f
a
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+

49
( )
u
A
A
=
gz p
p
A
A
C F
A
f a
a
f
a
f f d
a d

2
,
,
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
(
(
(
(
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= u
+
p
p
p
p
p
p
k
k
k
k
k
50
CarburetorPerformance
Figureshowstheperformanceofanelementary
carburetor.ThetopgraphshowsthevariationofC
d,a
and
C
d,f
andwiththeventuripressuredrop(typicallyvary
withpressuredrop).Forp
a

f
gz,thereisnofuelflow.
Oncefuelstartstoflow,thefuelflowrateincreasesmore
idl th th i fl t Th b t d li
51
rapidlythantheairflowrate.Thecarburetordeliversa
mixtureofincreasingequivalenceratioastheflowrate
increases.z istypicallyorderof10mm.Usuallyfuellevel
inthefloatchamberisheldbelowthefueldischarge
nozzletopreventthefuelspillagewhentheengineis
inclinedtohorizontal.
Thedeficienciesofaelementarycarburetor
1. Atlowloadsthemixturebecomesleaner;theenginerequiresthe
mixturetobeenrichedatlowloads.
2. Atintermediateloads,themixtureequivalenceratioincreases
slightlyastheairflowincreases.Theenginerequiresanalmost
constantequivalenceratio.
3. Astheairflowapproachesthemaximumwideopenthrottle
52
value,theequivalenceratioremainsessentiallyconstant.
However,themixtureequivalenceratioshouldincreaseto1.1or
greatertoprovidemaximumenginepower.
4. Theelementarycarburetorcannotcompensatefortransient
phenomenaintheintakemanifold.Norcanenrichthemixture
duringenginestartingandwarmup.
5. Theelementarycarburetorcannotadjusttochangesinambient
airdensity(dueprimarilytochangesinaltitude).
ModernCarburetorDesign
Thechangesrequiredintheelementarycarburetorsothatitprovides
theequivalenceratiorequiredatvariousairflowratesareasfollows.
1. Themainmeteringsystem mustbecompensatedtoprovideaconstant
leanorstoichiometricmixtureover20to80%oftheairflowrange.
2. Anidlesystemmustbeaddedtometerthefuelflowatidleandlight
loadstoprovidearichmixture.
3. Anenrichmentsystem mustbeprovidedsothattheenginecangetarich
mixtureaswideopenthrottleconditionsisapproachedandmaximum
powercanbeobtained.
53
p
4. Anacceleratorpump mustbeprovidedsothatadditionalfuelcanbe
introducedintotheengineonlywhenthethrottleissuddenlyopened.
5. Achoke mustbeaddedtoenrichthemixtureduringcoldstartingand
warmuptoensurethatacombustiblemixtureisprovidedtoeach
cylinderatthetimeofignition.
6. Altitudecompensation isnecessarytoadjustthefuelflowwhichmakes
themixturerichwhenairdensityislowered.
7. Increaseinthemagnitudeofthepressuredropavailableforcontrolling
thefuelflowisprovidedbyintroducingboostventuris(Venturisin
series)orMultiplebarrelcarburetors(Venturisinparallel).
Twocommonmethodsusedtoachieveaboveare
Boostventuris
Doubleventurisystem,multipleventuris.
54
Multiplebarrelcarburetors
Twobarrelcarburetorsusuallyconsistsoftwosinglebarrel
carburetorsmountedinparallel.
10
Fuelinjectionsystems
Gasolinefuelinjection
Injectthefuelintotheengineintakesystem
Requiredoneinjectorpercylinder
Therearebothmechanicalandelectronicinjectorsystems
Increasedpowerandtorque,uniformfueldistribution,rapidengine
responsetothrottleposition,precisecontrolofequivalenceratio
Dieselfuelinjection
55
j
FuelsprayedincylindernearTDC
Atomization,vaporization&mixingdelayignition
Ignitionoccurswhereverconditionsright
Combustionratecontrolledbyinjectioncharacteristics(injectionrate,
sprayangle,injectionpressure,nozzlesizeandshape),chamber
shape,mixturemotion,&turbulence
Glowplugmaybeusedtoaidcoldstarting
Poweroutputcontrolledonlybyamountoffuelinjected
MeritsofFuelInjectionintheSIEngine
AbsenceofVenturi NoRestrictioninAirFlow/HigherVol.
Eff./Torque/Power
HotSpotsforPreheatingcoldaireliminated/Denserairenters
ManifoldBranchPipesNotconcernedwithMixturePreparation
(MPI)
BetterAccelerationResponse(MPI)
56
FuelAtomizationGenerallyImproved
UseofGreaterValveOverlap
Use of Sensors to Monitor Operating Parameters/Gives Accurate
Matching of Air/fuel Requirements: Improves Power, Reduces
fuel consumption and Emissions
PreciseinMeteringFuelinPorts
PreciseFuelDistributionBetweenCylinders(MPI)
LimitationsofPetrolInjection
HighInitialCost/HighReplacementCost
IncreasedCareandAttention/MoreServicingProblems
RequiresSpecialServicingEquipmenttoDiagnoseFaultsandFailures
SpecialKnowledgeofMechanicalandElectricalSystemsNeededto
DiagnoseandRectifyFaults
InjectionEquipmentComplicated,DelicatetoHandleandImpossibleto
ServicebyRoadsideServiceUnits
57
ContainMoreMechanicalandElectricalComponentsWhichMayGo
Wrong
IncreasedHydraulicandMechanicalNoiseDuetoPumpingand
MeteringofFuel
Very Careful Filtration Needed Due to Fine Tolerances of Metering and
Discharging Components
More Electrical/Mechanical Power Needed to Drive Fuel Pump and/or
Injection Devices
More Fuel Pumping/Injection Equipment and Pipe Plumbing Required
May be Awkwardly Placed and Bulky
GasolineFuelInjectionSystemComponents
1. ElectricFuelPump
2. FuelAccumulator MaintainsFuelLinePressureWhenEngineis
ShutOffandQuietnesstheNoiseCreatedbytheRollerCellPump
3. FuelFilter APleatedPaperorLintoffluffTypePlusStrainer
4. PrimaryPressureRegulator MaintainsOutputDeliveryPressureto
beAbout5Bar
58
5 PushUpValve PreventsControlPressureCircuitLeakage.
ItisaNonreturnValvePlacedatOppositeEndofPressureRegulator
6. Fuel Injection Valve Valves are Insulated in Holders to Prevent Fuel
Vapor Bubbles Forming in the Fuel Lines Due to Engine Heat.
ValvesOpenatabout3.3BarandSprayFuel.
ValveOscillatesAbout1500cyclespersecondandsoHelpsin
Atomization
GasolineFuelInjection
InSIenginestheairand
fuelareusuallymixed
togetherintheintake
systempriortoentryto
theenginecylinder.
Ratioofairtofuel15:1
59
Fuelisinjectedtotrough
individualinjectorsfroma
lowpressurefuelsupply
systemintotheintake
port.
IndirectInjection
AlsoCalledManifoldInjectionorSinglePointInjection(SPI)or
ThrottleBodyInjection(TBI)
InjectorUsuallyUpstreamFromThrottle(AirIntakeSide)orIn
SomeCasesPlacedontheOppositeSide
PressuresareLow 2to6Bar.MaybeInjectedIrrespectiveof
IntakeProcess
60
CostWouldbeLow
Has Same Air and Fuel Mixing and Distribution Problems as
Carburetor but Without Venturi Restriction so Gives Higher
Engine Volumetric Efficiency
Higher Injection Pressures Compared to Carburetion Speeds up
Atomization of Liquid Fuel
11
SemidirectInjection
AlsoCalledPortInjectionorIndirectMultipointInjection(IMPI)or
SimplyMultipointInjection(MPI)
InjectorsPositionedinEachInductionManifoldBranchJustinFrontof
InletPort
InjectionatLowPressure(26Bar)
NeedNotBeSynchronizedWithEngineInductionCycle
FuelCanBeDischargedSimultaneouslytoEachInductionPipeWhere
61
g y p
itisMixedandStoredUntilIVO
NeedNotBeTimed RequiresLowDischargePressures InjectorsNot
ExposedtoCombustionProductssoComplexityReduced LessCost
No Fuel Distribution Difficulties Since Each Injector Discharges Directly
Into Its Own Port and Mixture Moves a Short Distance Before Entering
Cylinder
Induction Manifold Deals Mainly With Only Inducted Air So Branch
Pipes Can Be Enlarged and Extended to Maximize Ram Effect
DirectCylinderInjection
AlsoCalledDirectMultipointInjection(DMPI)orGasolineDirect
Injection(GDI)
InjectionMaybeDuringIntakeorCompressionProcess
IncreasedTurbulenceRequired
ToCompensateForShorterPermittedTimeFor
Injection/Atomization/MixingInjectionPressureMustBeHigher
MoreValveOverlapPossibleSoFreshAirCanBeUtilizedFor
Scavenging
62
Scavenging
InjectorNozzleMustBeDesignedForHigherPressureand
TemperatureSoMustBeMoreRobustandWillBeCostlierThan
OtherTypes
PositionandDirectionofInjectionAreImportant NoOnePosition
WillBeIdealForAllOperatingConditions
AirandFuelMixingIsMoreThoroughinLargeCylindersThanIn
SmallCylindersBecauseDropletSizeistheSame
CondensationandWallWettinginIntakeManifoldEliminatedBut
CondensationOnPistonCrownandCylinderWalls
GasolineFuelInjectionInjectortypes
Mechanicalinjectionusinganinjection
pumpdrivenbytheengine.
Mechanical,driveless,continuous
injection.
63
j
Electronicallycontrolleddriveless
injection.
FuelInjection(electronic,multiport)
Monitored Engine
Operating Conditions:
Manifold Pressure
Engine Speed
Air Temperature
CoolantTemperature
Acceleration
COMPUTER TRIGGER
64
50 psi typical
INJECTOR DRIVE UNIT
Pressure Regulator Fuel
Filter
Fuel
Pump
FUEL TANK
Injectors
ELECTRONICFUELINJECTION
Strictemissionstandardsrequireprecisefueldelivery
Computersusedtocalculatefuelneeds
EFIveryprecise,reliable&costeffective
EFIprovidecorrectA/Fratioforallloads,speeds,&temp
65
ranges
TheFuelInjector
Electromechanicaldevice
Enginerpmdetermineswheninjectoropens
Howlongitstaysopendeterminedby:
Enginetemp
Engine load
66
Engineload
Throttlepos.
O2sensorvoltage
12
ThrottleBodyInjection(TBI)
Firstinjection
unitused
Housing
similartoCarb
One or two
67
Oneortwo
injector
Oneortwoof
theseunits
mountedto
intake
manifold
FIG 6-40 CLASS
LOWPRESSUREFUELINJECTOR
1316psi
operating
pressure
B ll l
68
Ballstyle
pintle
Easily
replaceable
MultiPortFuelInjection
Oneinjectorpercylinder
Mountsinintake
manifold,spraysdirectly
atintakevalve
Fired in groups or
69
Firedingroupsor
individually(SFI)
RamTuningfordenser
aircharge
LowerA/Ftemps
Leanermixtureduring
warmup
FuelPressureRegulator
Locatedatendoffuelrail
Maintainsconstantpressureatinjectors
Internalchambercontainsadiaphragm
Pressurizedfuelononeside
Manifoldvacuum&springtensiononother
70
Manifoldvacuumpullsupondiaphragm,
meteringfuelthatisreturnedtotank
Excessfuelpressurecanovercomespring
tension,allowingfueltoreturntotank
Increasesinmanifoldpressurecausesspring
tensiontopushdiaphragmdown,blocking
returnline,increasingpressureinrail.
71
Vacuumhose
connection Fuel rail
72
Fuel
return
13
Dieselengine(CI)
Theliquidfueljetatomizesintodropsandentrainsair;
evaporatesfuelvapormixeswithairairtemperatureand
pressureareabovethefuelsignitionpoint.Afterashortdelay
autoignitionstarts.
At full load air fuel ratio is 20: 1
73
Atfullloadairfuelratiois20:1
Dieselfuelinjectionsystemconsistsof
1. Injectionpump
2. Deliverypipes
3. Fuelinjectornozzles
74
THEDIESELFUELSYSTEM
75
InjectionPumpusuallymechanicaldrive
Beltsandrollersnotgood,usegearsandchains
Notespilllinefrominjector,pump,separator
FuelInjectionSystems
76
GeneralCharacteristics
Pumprunsatenginespeed
ControlsQuantityAND
timingofinjection
Maxfuellimitedbysmoke
limit
Howdoestimingvarywithload?
IgnitiondelayisSHORTER(higher
density)BUT:
Althoughignitiondelayisshorted,
stillneedmoreadvancetoensureall
fuelisburntduringstroke
77
Timingvarieswithloadand
speed
Timingaccurateto1
o
crank
angle
Atmaxloadfuelvarianceamong
cylindersshouldbelessthan3%
otherwisepowerlimitedbysmoky
exhaustofrichestcyl.
Apumpaintsosimple!
78
14
Layoutofconventionalfuelsystem
79
InLinePumps(mostcommon)
asetofcamdrivenplungers(oneforeachcylinder)
Drivenfromcrankspeed
Multilobecam
Thisexampleusesrack,not
lever
Rackrotatesplungerassy and
controlsflow
Governor and advance coupling
80
Governorandadvancecoupling
drivenbyrotatingweights
actingagainstaspring(like
mechanicaladvanceon
distributor)
Fueltrappedintheplungeris
forcedthroughacheckvalve
intotheinjectionline.The
injectionnozzlehasoneormore
holesthroughwhichthefuelis
sprayedtocylinder.
PlungerDesign TraditionalInjectionPump
81
Plungerforcesfuelthroughfitting
Rotating Levercontrolshow muchspillsback levercontrolsfuelflow(no throttle)
Allrunby camdrivenby crank
Plungers
Operation:
Plungermovesupandblocks
inlet
Fuelisallowedtoescape
throughspillport(noticehelical
grove)
82
grove)
Reminderoffuelforcedout
outletport
Strokeisconstantbydelivery
variedbyrotation
RotaryPump
83
Muchlesscomplicatedbutlowerpressures
Fewmovingparts
Fedbytransferpump
Meteringthroughgovernormechanism rotorslides
Pressurizationviaslidingpistons
TypicalRotaryPump
84
15
FuelInjectors
Nozzletypedictatesperformance
SingleHole
GoodforID
1mmhardtoclog
Multihole
Bettermisting
Easyclogassize>0.1mm
85
Clogscausedbydecompofleakedfuel
Differentialpressurescauseopening
Noteneedledesign pressureOPENS
nozzle
Differentialpressures
f(needlediametervs.seatdiameter)
Springclosing
Hardertoopenthantokeepopen
Smallerseatcontactareaandstrongspring
enhancesealing,eliminatedribble
Dribbleleadstoemissionsanddeposits
Timing sets
86
Gear sets
Camand crank rotate in opposite directions
Noisy if not free of burrs
Helical and spur cut gears
Timing sets
87
Timing chains
Single and double roller
Tensioners
PintleNozzle
Excellentdisbursement,
providesconicalspraypattern
LooksSimilartothatusedin
CISsystems
OpensUPWARD
E ll t l i t
88
Excellentclogresistance
MoreInjectorConsiderations
Auxholetobleedexcessfuelandpreventdeposits
4VHeads:
Upside
Vf Up
Central injector position
Downside
Less swirl
More nozzle holes for good disbursion/combustion, as
89
g / ,
small as 0.1 mm
Nozzlescooledbyfuel
Coolingimportanttomaintaintolerancesandsealing
SprayPatternCritical!
AspectRatioof28
LargerAspectRatio morepenetration
LargerAspectratio Smallercone
Atomizationupw velocity,butrestrictspenetrationaswell
PilotInjection
SmallAmountoffuelearlytoinitiateflamefront
Allowsforlargeadvance
Eliminatesknockandcorrespondingproblemsassociatedwithhighpeak
pressuresandwaveimpingement
2SpringSpecialinjectorneededfor2modeoperation
90
16
ElectronicUnitInjection
ElectronicUnitInjection
SolenoidControlled
Sofastpilotinjectioncanbeused
Expensivetoproduce
Widelyusedinheavytruck
91
whereemissionsandeconomyare
critical
ControlledjustlikeSIEFI
VariationisHEUI
MovingComponents
Valves
Intake:opentoadmitairto
cylinder(withfuelinOttocycle)
Exhaust:opentoallowgasestobe
rejected
Camshaft&Cams
92
Usedtotimetheadditionofintake
andexhaustvalves
Operatesvalvesviapushrods&
rockerarms
Valve trains
93
OHV (overhead valve)
Pushrod configuration
Many reciprocating parts
Higher valve spring pressure required
Compact engine size compared to OHC
Valve trains
94
OHC (overhead cam)
Fewer reciprocating parts
Reduced valve spring pressure required
Higher RPM capability
Cylinder head assemblies are taller
Valve trains
95
Cam-in-head
No pushrods
Use rocker arms
ValveLocations
96
17
Combustion process: stratified charge Combustion process: stratified charge
97
jet guided wall guided inlet air guided
ChargeStratification
98
CombustionChamberDesigns
99
CombustionChamberDesign
100
101
102
18
103
104
105
CLASSIFICATIONOFINTERNALCOMBUSTIONENGINES
Cooling
1. DirectAircooling
2 Indirect Air cooling (Liquid Cooling)
106
2. IndirectAircooling(LiquidCooling)
3. LowHeatRejection(Semiadiabatic)engine.
Cooling systemoperation
Engine heat is transfered . . .
through walls of the combustion chambers
through the walls of cylinders
Coolant flows . . .
t di t h
107
to upper radiator hose
through radiator
to water pump
through engine water jackets
through thermostat
back to radiator
Cooling systemoperation
Fans increase air flow through radiator
Hydraulic fan clutches
Hydraulic fans consume 6 to 8 HP
Electric fans
108
Coolant (ethylene glycol)
50/50 mixture increases boiling point to 227F
pressurizing systemto 15 PSI increases to 265F
Coolant (propylene glycol)
Less protection at the same temperatures
Less toxic
19
CIvs.SIEngines
SIenginesdrawfuelandairintothecylinder.
Fuelmustbeinjectedintothecylinderatthedesiredtimeof
combustioninCIengines.
AirintakeisthrottledtotheSIengine nothrottlinginCI
engines.
Compressionratiosmustbehighenoughtocauseautoignition
inCIengines(CI:12to24),compressedtopressureabout4Mpa
d t t b t 800 K
109
andtemperatureabout800K.
UppercompressionratioinSIenginesislimitedbytheauto
ignitiontemperature(SI:8to12).
FlamefrontinSIenginessmoothandcontrolled.
CIcombustionisrapidanduncontrolledatthebeginning.
ThevalvetiminginbothCIandSIaresimilar.
Diesel:GasolinesDirtyCousin?
110
y
HowisDieselDifferentfromGasoline?
Dieselisapetroleumbasedfuelwithahigherenergycontent
thangasoline.
containsabout30%moreenergypergallonascomparedto
gasoline.
Dieselisasaferfuelthangasolineorotheralternatives.
lessflammableandexplosivethangasolineduetolower
111
p g
combustibility.
DieselisCheaperthanGasoline
CurrentCostofaGallonofGasolineandDiesel
Gasoline = $1.78
Diesel = $1.65
MisconceptionsAboutDiesel
ItsDirty
ItCausesalotofPollution
112
IthasLimitedUses
BenefitsofDiesel
Awellmaintaineddieselengineusuallyemitslowerlevelsof
carbonmonoxide,hydrocarbonsandcarbondioxidethan
gasolineengines.
Betterfueleconomy,
Increased durability for longer engine life
113
Increaseddurabilityforlongerenginelife.
ProblemswithOldDiesel
Technologies
HighSulfurContentofFuel
HighNO
x
Emissions
HighParticulateMatterEmissions
TheBlackSmokeeveryonesees
114
NoisyEngines
20
SulfurContent
DieselfuelavailableintheU.S.currentlycontainsfrom340ppm
ofsulfurto140ppminCalifornia.
EuropeanStandardsaremuchlower
Aslowas10ppminGermanyandSweden
115
NO
x
Emissions
Highcylinderpressureandtemperaturewithexcessiveairisthe
recipeformakingNO
x
Becauseofexcessairindieselengines,currentcatalyticcant
scruboutNO
x
116
ParticulateMatter
Unburnedfuelinthecompressionignitionprocessbecomes
soot,apervasiveformofparticulatematter.
117
CleanDiesel
Cleandieselisanevolutionarysystemsbasedprocessthat
combinesadvancementsindieselengines,cleanerburningfuels
andemissionscontrolsystem,allworkingandoptimized
together.
118
WhatMakesDieselClean?
TheThreePillarsofCleanDieselTechnology:
cleanerburningfuels
stateoftheartengines
effectiveemissionscontrolsystems
119
CleanerBurningFuels
ThenewestindieselfuelsiscalledUltralow
SulfurDiesel(ULSD)
Ultralowsulfurdieselfuelisaspeciallyrefineddiesel
fuelthathasdramaticallylowersulfurcontentthan
120
y
regulardieselandcanbeusedinanydieselenginejust
likeregulardieselfuel.
Today,thesulfurcontentofULSDrangesfrom15
to30partspermillion.Regulardieselhasa
maximumof500partspermillionofsulfur.
21
HowDoesULSDHelp?
Reducessulfateemissions
Allowstheuseofparticulatetrapsandcatalyticconverters
Lowersenginemaintenancecosts
Easytoconvertto
121
Noretrofittingrequired
Onlycostsafewcentsmore
StateoftheArtEngines
NewEngineTechnologies
ElectronicControls
CommonrailFuelInjection
VariableInjectionTiming
122
ImprovedCombustionChamberConfiguration
Turbocharging
ComparisonofSIandCIEngines
123
TypicalBrakeThermalEfficienciesofCIandSIEngines
124
125 126
22
127
(portfuelinjection)
128
Roger Krieger, GM R&D Center
129
SummaryDieselEngines
Advantages:
Efficiency(mostefficientprimemover)
Emissions(lowCO,CO
2
,gooddurability)
Veryhightorqueandperformance
Di d t
130
Disadvantages:
Emissions(morechallengingtocontrolNOx,
particulates)
Highercost
Heavier
Noise(morechallengingtomakequiet)

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