Tema

Postmodernism and liquid modernity Modernity Los rasgos con los que, tpicamente,

se vincula la Modernidad en los anlisis de diversos autores que han estudiado este perodo histrico son los de Cristianismo, Europa, occidente, racionalismo, empirismo, universalismo, pragmatismo, idealismo, normativismo, tradicin, moralidad, historia, convenciones, virtudes, identidad definida, seguridad existencial. y certidumbre (GARCA RUIZ, 2011)

Postmodernity Los comparatistas

han tenido un tardo ingreso y participacin en el debate postmoderno (RUST, 1991). De hecho, acadmicos como Gail Kelly, Phillip Altbach y Robert Arnove han evidenciado que el marco terico principal que inform la investigacin de la Educacin Comparada en las dcadas de 1960 y 1970 fue el del Modernismo (KELLY, ALTBACH y ARNOVE, 1982: 515, citado por RUST, 1991: 612) Personalmente creo que el relativismo no se revela muy fecundo epistemolgicamente.

Liquid modernity Bauman is not a postmodernist in the negative use of the concept and he never has been. 5 Los fluidos, por as decirlo, no se fijan a! espacio ni se atan a!

tiempo 8 Asociamos "levedad" o "liviandad" con movilidad e inconstancia: Ia practica nos de- muestra que cuanto menos cargados nos desplacemos, tanto mas rapido sera nuestro avance. 8 El fin del panoptico augura e/ fin de Ia era del compromiso mutua 16 Estamos asistiendo a Ia venganza del nomadismo contra el principio de Ia territorialidad y el sedentarismo 18 Su esfuerzo se apoyaba en Ia legislaci6n de un lenguaje

oficial, un sistema educativo y un sistema legal unificado, estructuras de las que las comunidades ca- recen y que tampoco estan en vias de adquirir. 184 aun cuando su manera de reproduccion sea territorial, son en realidad extra- territoriales (y tienden a ser mas exitosas cuanto menos dependen de las restricciones territoriales} 210 Liquid modern challenges to education (http://sociology.leeds.ac.uk/sites/zbi/2010/08/13/liquidmodern-challenges-to-education/)
Baumans preference for liquid modernity can be seen as part of a general response to the recent decline of postmodernism. This decline can be attributed to the failure of postmodernism to go beyond the critique of foundationalism 62 Change of the setting in which educators operate it is not enough to be born, to become human must do something else: get
educated

Education depends on what environment you are preparing your students

for

the present is not bound by the past nor does it bind the future as it used to time is not a line nor a circle but an aggregate of points tough, solid world is over. You don't know where you will end up next year. Life is episodic as in sitcoms tirany of the moment; presentist culture - concentrated on squeezing the opportunities of the moment and not on a long term goal. Today, goals are derivatives of present opportunities (I have a car, I can travel)

Gregory Bateson: three types of learning: facts, learning to learn, deconstructing learning. What he thought of as catastrophic (deconstructing learning) is now the norm. Society of producers was aimed at producing solid structures. The goal was
to create a project de vie (not any longer) Nowadays we are a society of consumers

Community cared (welfare state, stat providence). Nowadays there is

mutual suspicion and competitiveness: the really exciting part of life is who will be excluded first (big-brother-like shows -they are popular because people see their experience reflected -homo hominis lupus)

Morality is about care for other, being for the other, self-sacrificing for the
good of the other, the common cause. There is a clash between the

message of educators and the experience of life. The task of educators is to prepare young people for the society they will enter. Q: can we just reform schools or do we have to change society?

Oneupmanship: the desire of being one level up the next person Excess of knowledge Before, knowledge helped you to be a good person. The major obstacle
to doing things properly was the absence of knowledge. No longer is the absence of information the problem

Intelligence is distinguishing the important from unimportant (computers

are utterly stupid)

one Sunday issue of the NYT contains more info than an educated 18th
cent person would have had

Knowledge is made to be consumed quickly ballistic missiles are outdated, smart missiles is the present Logaristic information (info excess). Info ages (outdates) -we are no longer sure of what info is worthy of teaching/learning
How to proceed? Richard Sennett: Informal (not ready-made, cold old proceedings; no rules) open (awareness that you may be wrong) cooperation (rather than discussion/debate/negotiation: no winner, everyone emerges enriched)

Decision criteria are exclusively economic -there are no ethical criteria complex systems New public management Audit culture: results vs. objectives New public management theory spawned the audit culture and its focus on
results (Hughes, 1998; Strathern, 2000). It emphasises the measurement of performance against objectives, with defined responsibilities for achieving these objectives and the use of data - especially cost and output information to evaluate performance and decide whether to apply sanctions or rewards.

Complex management entails democratic problem-solving and decentralised

experimentation rather than central control and conformity (Kauffman, 1995). It does not use feedback to serve an audit culture of coercive accountability but instead to inform a discursive democracy (Strathern, 2000; Dryzek, 1990)

organisations need to have the autonomy to initiate innovation rather than be

constrained by pre-defined performance targets. This is increasingly being revealed by studies of performance management (Newman, Raine and

Skelcher, 2001). Working with the self-organisational capacity of local systems acknowledges local agency and democratic participation.

Indicators are still needed to trace, anticipate and intervene in organisational or

neighbourhood trajectories, but they are needed alongside indicators that track the big picture as well. This extends beyond what is happening to what is possible: to tuning the fitness landscape and exploring future system states and how to get there.

Complexity theory does not deny the need for monitoring performance. But it
goes beyond the confines of new public management by recognising public services organisations as complex systems within policy landscapes. The efficacy of complex systems in public policy depends on their communicative and democratic capacity to use monitoring information rather than on the imposed targets and managerial control typical of the new audit culture.

education is better understood as being oriented toward the as-yet unimagined

indeed, the currently unimaginable. Such a goal can only be understood in terms of exploration of the current spaces of possibility. {Davis and Sumara, 2008, #46207@38}

one

cannot specify in advance what sorts of variation will be necessary for appropriately intelligent action, hence the need to ensure and maintain diversity in the current system. {Davis and Sumara, 2008, #46207@39}
the trend towards professionalism and the focus on standardization come into question as the behav- ioral and personal competencies of project managers out- side of project management standards appear to be more relevant for their workplace performance [15] than the tools and techniques emphasized in the standards. In fact, there is little or no empirical evidence that trained and or certified project managers are any more successful than accidental project managers in todays complex world {Thomas and Mengel, 2008, #38890@304-305} communication; skills in orga- nizational politics; and the importance of visions, values, and beliefs have emerged as competencies that are required from project managers in complex environments. {Thomas and Mengel, 2008, #38890@308}

Shared leadership; social competence and emotional intelligence;

Dainty et al. [18] have identified the competencies of client-orientation,

flexibility and self-control as most important in this environment {Thomas

and Mengel, 2008, #38890@308}

Thus, todays project managers may not be equipped or trained adequately

to handle complex projects even though significant efforts have been put into professionalizing project management and providing an ever growing num- ber of project management education courses [61] based on the traditional project management tools and techniques. {Thomas and Mengel, 2008, #38890@308} [WELL, REALLY? STOP PEDABOBOS, LO QUE NECESITAN ES HARD FACTS]

Project managers must be taught to seek first to understand the

increasingly complex environments they are operating in as opposed to our current biased. . .focus on problem solving and applying prescribed techniques [44, p. 114]. Rather than training project managers to apply tools and techniques, we need to prepare them to diagnose situations, adopt appropriate tools and techniques, adapt the tools and techniques as necessary, and to learn continuously. {Thomas and Mengel, 2008, #38890@311}

The increasing unpredictability and complexity of unforeseen consequences of

actions means that new methods of managing, planning and executing strategy are needed. As organizations adapt to these changes and to feedback they receive, they find that strat- egy or project execution can no longer be modeled as linear outcomes of planned actions. {Thomas and Mengel, 2008, #38890@307}

Operating at this edge of chaos requires managers to first pay attention to

relationships at all levels, second to realize that small changes can have large unexpected results, and finally to understand that organizational activ- ity is emergent rather than planned [48] {Thomas and Mengel, 2008, #38890@308}

Successfully adaptive institutions will continually rearrange their constituent networks according to the future that is anticipated by internal modelling based on prediction and environmental feedback. The operative principle is of course induction from empirical experience to general principle, rather than deduction. 44 Leadership without organisation breeds disillusion. Management without vision
breeds bureacracy.

Whole systems approach Management based on complexity theory is also a whole systems
approach and includes within its frame of reference the wider environment, so that organisational performance is seen not just as a function of organisational

capability but also of the types of environment in which organisations work.

Pawson and Tilleys (1997) programme evaluation methodology places great

emphasis on local contextual effects and argues for research designs of the type Context + Intervention = Outcome. From a complexity perspective, however, it is not valid to isolate specific outcomes from a context in a situation where there is a set of highly interdependent variables evolving over time (Stroup, 1997). A complexity formulation would instead be Initial System State + Input = New System State, with the idea that a system may shift from one attractor to another as a result of an input of resources which alters all key parameter values.

we need to stop thinking linearly, which is quite dangerous in a

nonlinear complex reality (cf. Mainzer 2004, p. 407). {Jrg, 2009,

#31696@2}

Reality, then, may be understood differently: as possibilities and

potentialities, coemerging in relationships through dynamic nonlinear processes of causation within and between whole human beings in (their) complex tapestry of functions and relationships. {Jrg, 2009, #31696@16}
It turns out that a suitably chosen collection of such objects can work better as
a group if they are not being coordinated by some single controller, but are instead competing for some limited resource Imagine that you have dropped a one-hundred dollar bill. You organize a search-team, stating that they will all share the money when it is found. If the search-team is a large one, you will have great difficulty in coordinating everybodys actions hence you might never find the money. By contrast, if you tell everyone that the money is theirs if they find it, their individual selfish drive will likely be so strong that the money is found very quickly. In the sense that dropped bills are like available rocks, we can see that the collective action of selfish machines could be used to solve quite a complicated search problem. 1.1

Massive and sustained intervention at every possible level demands, unfortunately, very substantial resources. 46 segn Lingard y Rawolle, la complejidad de la

realidad post-Westfaliana est revelando el actual trnsito del gobierno a la gobernanza en la poltica educativa (IDEM). El gobierno, segn estos

acadmicos, se refiere a una toma de decisiones de la poltica pblica, jerrquica, vinculada a las naciones y a las estructuras estatales, mientras que la gobernanza se refiere a una toma de decisiones en red, que es inclusiva del sector privado y de organizaciones ms all del Estado-nacin.
Companies that think they have an innovation problem don't have an innovation problem. They have a leadership problem Complex systems: characteristics study of the phenomena which emerge from a collection of

interacting objects 1.1 Complexity theory is a realist epistemology in the sense that systems and phase spaces are regarded as real rather than as social constructions Iteration is a feature of all social systems because they reproduce themselves (autopoiesis in the language of complexity theory). Policy intervention seeks to reproduce something different. Two other important aspects derived from complexity theory are memory and the capacity to learn from past behaviour, and representation or the ability to make associations and identify patterns and their meanings (Cilliers, 1998). There are obvious echoes here with the management concept of a learning organisation. Sanderson (2000), in his discussion of evaluation in complex policy systems, draws on Habermas to argue that organisational learning requires communicative competence, or open discussion and argumentation free from distortions due to the coercive exercise of power and ideology (p. 451). An interesting question is how memory, representation and communication work together to achieve a successful organisation, and complexity theory again offers a concept that may help. Complex systems have been found to display fractals, or patterns of similar relationships which repeat at multiple scales. Such repetition would, for example, be important in ensuring that an organisation can benefit from coherence between individual learning, group level learning and organisational level learning (Morel and Ramanujam, 1999). The concept also captures the strategic management

idea of alignment between the values and purposes of the organisation and those of its employees. According to Cilliers (1998), a complex system is a system of inter-relationships between nodes, with the nodes deriving their significance not as atomistic units but as products of the particular inter-relationships embodied at each node. This is how complexity theory has been associated with democracy. complex phenomena are self-organizing, self-maintaining, and tend to be nested within (arising from and giving rise to) other systems {Davis and Sumara, 2008, #46207@36}
among

humans, there is vastly more redundancy than diversity. This sort of deep sameness is vital. A complex systems capacity to maintain coherence is tied to the deep commonalities of its agents. {Davis and Sumara, 2008, #46207@39} Redundancy thus plays two key roles. First it enables interactions among agents. Second, when necessary, it makes it possible for agents to compensate for others failings. It is in these senses that redundancy is the complement of diversity. Whereas internal diversity is outward-oriented, in that it enables novel actions and possibilities in response to contextual dynamics, internal redundancy is more inward-oriented, enabling the habituated, moment-tomoment interactivity of the agents that constitute a system. {Davis and Sumara, 2008, #46207@39} Minimal redundancy among (i.e., high specialization of) agents is most valuable in relatively stable settings, but it can be associated with a loss of robustness and, hence, presents a risk of poor adaptability if the context were to become volatile. {Davis and Sumara, 2008, #46207@40} four conditions that we have presentedthat is, diversity, redundancy, neighbor interactions, and decentralized control Complexity researchers have identified many others, including: negative feedback loops
positive feedback loops the possibility of dying memory stability

under perturbations reproductive instability

All three streams of research are interested in the two zones

in which a disturbed system may return to: a stable zone and an unstable zone. Under appropriate conditions, systems may operate at the boundary between these zones, sometimes called a phase transition, or the edge of chaos {Thomas and Mengel, 2008, #38890@307} in order to initiate change in an organiza- tion you must be able to destabilize the existing structures enough to introduce change while maintaining enough sta- bility for the organization to survive the change [36] {Thomas and Mengel, 2008, #38890@308} complexity theory shares chaos theorys concern with wholes, with larger systems or environments and the relationships among their constituent elements or agents, as opposed to the often reductionist concerns of mainstream science with the essence of the ultimate particle {Mason, 2008, #13853@5}
For Newton, the universe was rationalistic, deterministic and of clockwork
order; effects were functions of causes, small causes (minimal initial conditions) produced small effects (minimal and predictable) and large causes produced large effects. Predictability, causality, patterning, control, universality, linearity, continuity, stability, objectivity, all contributed to the view of the universe as an ordered mechanism in an albeit complicated equilibrium, a rational, closed, controllable and deterministic system susceptible to comparatively straightforward scientific discovery and laws. {Morrison, 2008, #75745@19}

Complexity theory is a theory of change, evolution, adaptation and

development for survival. It breaks with simple successionist cause-and-effect models, linear predictability, and a reductionist approach to understanding phenomena, replacing them with organic, non-linear and holistic approaches respectively (Santonus, 1998, p. 3), in which relations within interconnected networks are the order of the day (Youngblood, 1997, p. 27; Wheatley, 1999, p. 10). {Morrison, 2008, #75745@19-20}

autocatalysis, a central feature of self-organization: the ability

of a system to evolve itself, from within. In this process local circumstances dictate the nature of the emerging selforganization: it is a bottom-up process (Marion, 1999, p. 31). This is a very simplified example of a central pillar of

complexity theory: self-organization. It contains several features: adaptability, open systems, learning, feedback, communication and emergence {Morrison, 2008, #75745@20}
Complexity theorys notion of emergence implies that, given a significant degree of complexity in a particular environment, or critical mass, new properties and behaviours emerge that are not contained in the essence of the constituent elements, or able to be predicted from a knowledge of initial conditions. {Mason 2008 @5} The issue is that in the social world, and in much of reality ... ,

causation is complex. Outcomes are determined not by single causes but by multiple causes, and these causes may, and usually do, interact in a non- additive fashion. In other words the combined effect is not necessarily the sum of the separate
effects. It may be greater or less, because factors can reinforce or cancel out each other in non-linear ways. (Byrne, 1998, p. 20) the dynamics of complex systems are inherently dynamic and transformational (Byrne, 1998, 51) The whole becomes, in a very real sense, more than the sum of its parts in that the emergent properties and behaviours are not contained in or able to be predicted from the essence of the constituent elements or agents. (Mason 2008, 37) Once a system reaches a certain critical level of complexity, otherwise known as critical mass, a phase transition takes place which makes possible the emergence of new properties and behaviours and a momentum whose inertia is significantly increased. A certain critical level of diversity and complexity must be reached for a system to achieve a sustainable autocatalytic statethat is, for it to maintain its own momentum in a particular direction (Mason 2008 37) Complexity theory draws attention to the emergent properties and behaviours that result not only from the essence of constituent elements, but more importantly, from the connections among them. 39 Ralph Stacey has set down three vitally important parameters that drive complex adaptive systems: the rate of information flow through the system, the richness of connectivity between agents in the system, and the level of diversity within and between the schemas of the agents (1996, p. 99). The exercise of trying to isolate the influence of a particular factor is about as facile as attempts in the popular media to report which particular gene is responsible for, say, aggression, or agoraphobia,

or a penchant for chocolate. Geneticists know enough about this emerging field to know that it is a combination of genes working in tandem and in tension with each other that leads to the attributes that mark each of us as individuals. 45 conditions of emergence (Davis and Sumara 2006) one cannot specify in advance what sorts of variation will be necessary for appropri- ately intelligent actionhence the need to ensure and maintain diversity in the current system (Davis and Sumara 2006, p. 138). redundancy enables interactions among agents ... [and] makes it possible for agents to compensate for others failings (ibid., p. 139) The extent of neighbour interactions among constituents: in education, the neigh- bours that must interact with one another are ideas, hunches, queries ... [and] teachers must [accordingly] make provision for the representation and interaction of ideas (ibid., pp. 142, 143). decentralisation of control refers to emergent conceptual possibilities, ... [to] interpretive possibilities (ibid., p. 144), Greater degrees of decentralised control are associated with enhanced neighbour interactions. The extent of randomness, or sources of disruption, in the system and its environment The extent of coherence in the system, which allows a collective to maintain a focus of purpose/identity (ibid., p. 147) Negative feedback loops ( ... to keep systems in check) (ibid., p. 151). Positive feedback loops ( ... to amplify specific qualities or dynamics) (ibid.). Sufficient means to preserve information since complex entities embody their histories and identities (ibid.). . Stability under perturbations (Davis & Sumara, 2006, p. 151.). . Reproductive instability (there must be room for error richness of connectivity between agents in the system (Stacey, 1996, p. 99). For Newton, the universe was rationalistic, deterministic and of clockwork order; effects were functions of causes, small causes (minimal initial conditions) produced small effects (minimal and predictable) and large causes produced large effects.

Predictability, causality, patterning, control, universality, linearity, continuity, stability, objectivity, all contributed to the view of the universe as an ordered mechanism in an albeit complicated equilibrium, a rational, closed, controllable and deterministic system susceptible to comparatively straightforward scientific discovery and laws. This view has been increasingly challenged by complexity theory 19 Complexity theory is a theory of change, evolution, adaptation and development for survival. It breaks with simple successionist cause-and-effect models, linear predictability, and a reductionist approach to understanding phenomena, replacing them with organic, non-linear and holistic approaches respectively (Santonus, 1998, p. 3), in which relations within interconnected networks are the order of the day (Youngblood, 1997, p. 27; Wheatley, 1999, p. 10). 19-20 autocatalysis, a central feature of self-organization: the ability of a system to evolve itself, from within. In this process local circumstances dictate the nature of the emerging selforganization: it is a bottom-up process (Marion, 1999, p. 31) Autopoiesis as self-production (Wheatley, 1999, p. 20) takes place through engagement with others in a system. The system is selfregenerating (able to sustain its identity even though aspects of the system may change, for example, staff turnover in a school), and self-perpetuating. the term derives from cum and plectere, meaning surrounding, encompassing, encircling, embracing, comprehending, comprising The terms complex and complexity are usually used as the opposite of simplicity. Their meanings pertain to the holistic, global or non-linear form of intelligibility needed to comprehend a phenomenon; sometimes they stress a pathological, dense, entangled dimension appearing as rebellious to the normal order of knowledge (Ardoino, 2000). Here is a probable source of the confusion between the words complex and complicated, which are frequently but sometimes erroneously interchanged in their usage. 68 There is no simple idea, because a simple idea ... is always inserted, to be understood, in a complex system of thoughts and experiences (Bachelard, 1934/2003, p. 152, free translation)

tradicionalmente

la Educacin Comparada asumi el vnculo de lo social con lo nacional asociado al Tratado de Westfalia de 1648. La proclamacin del Tratado de Westfalia de la soberana nacional defini un acuerdo

de que, dentro de un territorio geogrfico definido, los gobiernos nacionales podan seguir sus propias polticas sin interferencia de otros gobiernos 46
you can forget about the individual parts of the system, how complex they are. So if it's a cell or a termite or a bird, you just focus on the rules of interaction. 1. The focus is on process not just outcome measures. 2. No agent or subsystem has ontological priority. 3. Task and context, not instructions, assemble behavior. 4. Control parameters are not stationary. (The state space itself evolves through time.) (Thelen 1989 p. 105). Generative structures vs. deep structures Haggis 2008 Complexity represents one of a range of contemporary modes of understanding and explanation. Taking a broad purview of history, we see time and again the hegemonic ideas of one generation displaced by another. We do well to recognise complexity as socially embedded. Kuhn 2008 (por qu agora lo demos as
-sociologa)

Criticism We have been here before. In the 1970s, the catastrophe

theory of Ren Thom seemed to promise an understanding of how sudden changes in society might be provoked by small effects. This initiative atrophied rather quickly, since Thoms phenomenological and qualitative theory did not really offer fundamental explanations and mechanisms for the processes it described. {Ball, 2003, #48558@5} (1) is unclear on its own novelty, nature and status; (2) can be regarded as disguised ideology in conflating description and prescription; (3) confuses explanation with prediction; (4) is relativist, undermining its own status; (5) contains problems in its advocacy of self-organization; (6) neglects the ethical and emotional dimensions of leadership and management; and (7) risks exonerating school leaders and managers from reasonable expectations of accountability and responsibility. The article concludes that there are questions to CT at the levels of theory, ontology, deontology and ethics {Morrison, 2010, #59599@374}
Transdisciplinarity

is a term that is intended to flag a

research attitude in which it is understood that the members of a research team arrive with different disciplinary backgrounds and often-different research agendas, yet are sufficiently informed about one anothers perspectives and motivations to be able to work together as a collective {Davis and Sumara, 2008, #46207@35} In contrast to the analytic science of the Enlightenment, complexity thinking is not actually defined in terms of its modes of inquiry The domain is more appropriately characterized in terms of its objects of study than anything else {Davis and Sumara, 2008, #46207@36} What is not so well represented, within single publications, at least, is the necessity of interdiscursivity. Indeed, most often in the contemporary literature, discourses are presented as oppositional rather than complementary. This sort of conclusion is inevitable if the transphenomenal nature of educational objects is not taken into consideration {Davis and Sumara, 2008, #46207@37}
There is, however, one problem. We dont yet have a fully-

fledged theory of Complexity (Preface)

towards a science of simplicity! (it is hardly pursued) Simplicity: predictability, low cost, high performance value/cost,
building blocks

Education as a complex system learning is the individual. Learning

Everything should be made as simple as possible but not simpler (Einstein) "you know you've achieved perfection in design not when you have nothing more to add, but when you have nothing more to take away" Saint-Exupery

occurs on other levels as well, and to appreciate this point one must be clear on the nature of the complex unities that might be desired in educational collectives. {Davis

and Sumara, 2008, #46207@41} learning itself is a construction invented by mankind

(Fransella and Thomas, 1988, p. 104; emphasis added). Similarly, teaching is also an invention , as described by Brent Davis in his book Inventions of Teaching (2004).
{Jrg, 2009, #31696@2}

It

seems to be easier for society to change education than for education to change society {Lewin, 1948,

#4283@4} There is an unmistakable gap between the common science of learning and education, and the practice of education. {Jrg, 2009, #31696@5}
change in education, at whatever level, is not so much a consequence of effecting change in one particular factor or variable, no matter how powerful the influence of that factor. It is more a case of generating momentum in a new direction by attention to as many factors as possible. 44 Complex adaptive systems (Waldrop, 1992, pp. 2949) scan and sense the external environment and then make internal adjustments and developments in order to meet the demands of the changing external environment. 22 Learning is dynamic, active, experiential and participatory, openended, unpre- dictable and uncertain, and cognition requires interaction, decentralized control, diversity and redundancy (Davis & Sumara, 2005) Tanto Cowen como Schriewer afirman que la

Educacin Comparada es una ciencia de la complejidad y se preguntan dnde est la teora en la Educacin Comparada? Schriewer propone y aboga porque la Educacin Comparada es una ciencia de la complejidad (SCHRIEWER, 2000: 3). De sus reflexiones parece extraerse la idea de que no serviran mtodos sencillos y lineales como el difundido por Bereday para resolver las complejas cuestiones que conforman la Educacin Comparada. Schriewer cita algunos conceptos clave en la investigacin comparativa actual, como los de auto-

organizacin, morfognesis, y equivalencia funcional.

Educational systems are complex, dynamic systems with

multidirectional linkages and processes that interconnect the different layers within the system. Johnson 2008 9
Globalization Globalization and education I sympathize, therefore, with those who would minimize, rather than
with those who would maximize, economic entanglement among nations. Ideas, knowledge, science, hospitality, travel--these are the things which should of their nature be international. But let goods be homespun whenever it is reasonably and conveniently possible, and, above all, let finance be primarily national. {Keynes 1933@758}

nueva

ciencia de Poltica Educativa Global (otros acadmicos la denominan Globologa) que est an en estado incipiente y embrionario (LINGARD y RAWOLLE, 2010: 34) 1. Estandarizacin de las definiciones de logro educativo y desarrollo de un cmputo comn de indicadores educativos mundiales (a travs de la accin de organizaciones como la IEA y la OCDE). (DALE, 2000: 101-104)
Language teaching languages not only are signs of authentic national identities,
they are also seen as commodities, the possession of which is a valued skill in the job market. {Block 2008@35}

Language as a commodity implica que tiene que haber un estndar

(espaol internacional - EIL)

the spread of English as the lingua franca of the information age is viewed as the linguistic counterpart to the process of economic globalization {Dor 2004@97} a similar strategy was adopted a half century ago by another major global agent: the Catholic Church. In 1965, the Second Vatican Council issued the following decree concerning the proper way to find more easy access to the minds and the hearts of men {Dor 2004@103-04} Methodology CLT has become the first truly global method. Thus, while it is not
written into every national curriculum in the world today, it is a point

of reference in discussions about language teaching around the world. {Block 2008@39}

In Appadurais (op. cit.) terms, CLT is an example of a pedagogical

ideoscape, a global flow of ideas about teaching {Block 2008@39}

Kumaravadivelu discusses the post-method condition

{Kumaravadivelu 1994}, in which the adoption of a particular method has ceased to be regarded as the solution to all problems, and there is no longer a one-way flow of expertise from centre to periphery {Kumaravadivelu 2003}.

Management

For much of the three decades of experience with the approach, there has been little evidence that school-based management has had either a direct or an indirect effect on educational outcomes. {Caldwell 2009@57} Global forces, it is argued, are dramatically changing the role of the state in education, and demanding increased attention to be paid to factors operating beyond the national level (Watson, 1996). {Crossley 2002@81} Schools cannot achieve the expectations for transformation by acting alone or operating in a line of support from the centre of a school system to the level of the school, classroom or student. Horizontal approaches are more important than vertical approaches although the latter will continue to have an important role to play. The success of a school depends on its capacity to join networks or federations to share knowledge, address problems and pool resources.
{Caldwell 2009@64}

Globalization: characteristics Globalisation thus is a complex set of processes, not a single

one. And these operate in a contradictory or oppositional fashion. Most people think of it as simply 'pulling away' power or influence from local communities and nations into the global arena. And indeed this is one of its consequences. Nations do lose some of the economic power they once had. However, it also has an opposite effect. Globalisation not only pulls upwards, it pushes downwards, creating new pressures for local autonomy. The American sociologist Daniel Bell expresses this very well when he says that the nation becomes too small to solve the big problems, but also too large to solve the small ones. {Giddens 1999} Globalization can be located on a continuum with the local, national and regional. At the one end of the continuum lie

social and economic relations and networks which are organized on a local and/or national basis; at the other end lie social and economic relations and networks which crystallize on the wider scale of regional and global interactions. Globalization can be taken to refer to those spatio-temporal processes of change which underpin a transformation in the organization of human affairs by linking together and expanding human activity across regions and continents. {Held 1999@15}
What globalization means in structural terms, then, is the increase in the
available modes of organization: transnational, international, macroregional, nation, micro-regional, municipal, local. {Pieterse 1994}

hybridization is the making of global culture as a global mlange

{Pieterse 1994} La gran

mayora de las publicaciones que analizan la naturaleza y la entidad de la globalizacin y del fenmeno del postmodernismo aluden a la compresin del tiempo y del espacio Cowen sugiere que el tiempo puede ser repensado como asncrono, y alude al trabajo de Foucault, en el que se destacan las discontinuidades y rupturas en el tiempo (LARSEN, 2010: 5). Cowen propone que consideremos cada momento en el tiempo con su propia especificidad, y sin intentar conectarlo con el modelo de desarrollo lineal. Desde un punto de vista metodolgico, el proceso de globalizacin exige superar el nfasis y avanzar ms all del nacionalismo metodolgico (BECK, 2000) tradicional en nuestra disciplina. 56 La nueva concepcin del espacio pone en cuestin al Estado-nacin como tradicional unidad de anlisis de los estudios comparativos. Segn Cowen, necesitamos ampliar nuestras concepciones de espacio ms all del Estado-nacin. Nuevos espacios como unidades de anlisis podran incluir espacios regionales (ej. Comparaciones de lo urbano, suburbano y rural) o regiones supranacionales o costas (ej. la mediterrnea)

(LARSEN, 2010: 6).

needs revising (is dead) Increasing globalisation is concomitant with a growing lack of uniformity in the world.
Hardly any satisfactory concepts are available which grasp both of these tendencies within the scope of a single model. While processes of becoming globally alike are central to world system theories, comparative research into institutions has identified a persistent variety of patterns of order that are not giving way to global convergence. ... the world system concept should be replaced with an actor/structure model in which the global and the local are not understood as completely different fields of phenomena but are instead elucidated in terms of their relations of reciprocal constitution.

the very same global factors heighten the significance of the contextual sensitivities
that comparative researchers have a particular responsibility to identify, discipline and advance in the future {Crossley 2001@407}

{Tikly 2001@154} Identifica dos tendencies: hyperglobalists y skeptics.

Aboga por una tercera va: transformationalists: Like the hyperglobalists, this approach suggests that we are indeed experiencing unprecedented levels of global interconnectedness (Giddens, 1990; Castells, 1996). Unlike the hyperglobalists, however, transformationalists question whether we are entering a totally new global age of economic, political and cultural integration. Rather, they see globalisation as an historically contingent process replete with contradictions. Thus, although globalisation is resulting in greater integration in some areas of the economy, politics and culture, it is also resulting in greater fragmentation and stratification in which some states, societies and communities are becoming increasingly enmeshed in the global order while others are becoming increasingly marginalised (Held et al., 1999, p. 8)

domestic policies that create no (or very few) direct spillovers across
national borders. Examples are educational policies, highway safety standards and urban zoning. Since the object of regulation in both instances is a non-traded service (human capital, local transport and real estate, respectively), such policies do not affect the economic interests of other countries, at least directly. They therefore require no international agreement and can be safely left to domestic policymakers. {Frieden 2012@52}

Globalisation means the global integration of the movement

of goods, capital and jobs. Each of these processes is now in trouble. World trade has plunged. As recently as the first half of 2008, boosted by rising commodity prices and a falling dollar, trade was growing at an annualised 20% in dollar terms. In the second half of 2008, as commodities sagged and the dollar rose, growth slowed fast; by September, says the IMF, it was in reverse. In December, says the International Air Transport Association, air-cargo traffic (responsible for over a

third of the value of the world's traded goods) was down 23% on December 2007 {TheEconomist 2009} Despite the downturn, the nations of the world have not shunned globalisation. It has been protected by the belief of firms in the efficiency of global supply chains. But like any chain, these are only as strong as their weakest link. A danger point will come if firms decide that this way of organising production has had its day. {TheEconomist 2009}

diferencias nacionales permanecen a pesar de la expansin de la globalizacin (DALE, 2007: 48-62) cultura escolar: constituida por un conjunto de teoras, ideas, principios, normas, pautas, rituales, inercias, hbitos y prcticas (...) sedimentadas a lo largo del tiempo en forma de tradiciones, regularidades y reglas del juego no puestas en entredicho y compartidas por sus actores (...) (IBIDEM: 73). meme is a concept that spreads from person to person via the internet

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