Basic Principles of Measurement

NO TOPIK DEFNISI A measurement is simply a numerical assignment to something, usually a non-numerical element. Measurements convey certain information about the relationship between the element and other elements. Measurement involves a theoretical domain, an area of substantive concern represented as an empirical relational system, and a domain represented by a particular selected numerical relational system Only the presence/absence of an attribute; can only count items Can say that one item has more or less of an attribute than another item; can order a set of items Di!erence between any two successive points is equal; often treated as a ratio scale KAPAN DIGUNAKAN PERTANYAAN KUNCI KETERANGAN

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

Nominal

Contoh : go/no go; success/fail; accept/reject Contoh : taste; attractiveness Contoh : calendar time; temperature

Statistic : percent; proportion; chi-square tests Statistic : rank-order correlation Statistik : correlations; t-tests; F-tests;

Ordinal

Interval

NO

TOPIK

DEFNISI even if assumption of equal intervals is incorrect; can add, subtract, order objects True zero point indicates absence of an attribute; can add, subtract, multiply and divide Fundamentally, any item measure should meet two tests: 1. The item measures what it is intended to measure (i.e., it is valid). 2. Aremeasurement would order individual responses in the same way (i.e., it is reliable). The difference between the average measured value and a reference value is referred to as bias. The reference value is an agreed-upon standard, such as a standard traceable to a national standards body (see below). When applied to attribute inspection, bias refers to the ability of the attribute inspection system to produce agreement on inspection standards. Bias is controlled by calibration, which is the process of comparing measurements to

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KETERANGAN multiple regression Rusmus statistic : t-test; F-test; correlations; multiple regression

Ratio

Contoh : elapsed time; distance; weight

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF DATA

Bias

NO

TOPIK

DEFNISI standards. AIAG defines repeatability as the variation in measurements obtained with one measurement instrument when used several times by one appraiser, while measuring the identical characteristic on the same part. Variation obtained when the measurement system is applied repeatedly under the same conditions is usually caused by conditions inherent in the measurement system Reproducibility is the variation in the average of the measurements made by different appraisers using the same measuring instrument when measuring the identical characteristic on the same part Stability is the total variation in the measurements obtained with a measurement system on the same master or parts when measuring a single characteristic over an extended time period. A system is said to be stable if the results are the same at different points in time the difference in the bias values

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Repeatability

Reproducibility

Stability

Linearity

NO

TOPIK

DEFNISI through the expected operating range of the gage

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OVERVIEW OF STATISTICAL METHODS

Enumerative versus analytic statistical methods

Deming (1975) defines enumerative and analytic studies as follows: Enumerative studyLa study in which action will be taken on the universe. Analytic studyLa study in which action will be taken on a process to improve performance in the future

Enumerative versus analytic statistical methods The term inference is defined as 1) the act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true, or 2) the act of reasoning from factual knowledge or evidence. Inferential statistics provide information that is used in the process of inference. As can be seen from the definitions, inference involves two domains: the premises and the evidence or factual knowledge.

Enumerative statistical methods

NO

TOPIK

Assumptions and robustness of tests

Distributions

DEFNISI Additionally, there are two conceptual frameworks for addressing premises questions in inference: the designbased approach and the model-based approach It is important at the outset to comment on what we are not discussing here when we use the term robustness. First, we are not talking about the sensitivity of a particular statistic to outliers. This concept is more properly referred to as resistance and it is discussed in the exploratory data analysis section of this book. We are also not speaking of a product design that can perform well under a wide variety of operating conditions. This design-based definition of robustness is discussed in the Taguchi robustness concepts section. Distributions are a set of numbers collected from a well-defined universe of possible measurements arising from a property or relationship under study. Distributions show the way in which the probabilities are associated with

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DEFNISI the numbers being studied

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KETERANGAN . Binomial distribution . Poisson distribution . Hypergeometric distribution . Normal distribution . Exponential distribution . Chi-square distribution . Students t distribution . F distribution

Probability distributions for Six Sigma

BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION Poisson distribution HYPERGEOMETRIC DISTRIBUTION NORMAL DISTRIBUTION EXPONENTIAL DISTRIBUTION CHI-SQUARE, STUDENTS T,ANDF DISTRIBUTIONS STUDENTS T DISTRIBUTION F DISTRIBUTION All statements made in this section are valid only for stable processes, i.e., processes in statistical control. The statistical methods described in this section are enumerative. Although most applications of Six Sigma are analytic, there are times when enumerative statistics prove useful. In reading this material,

Statistical inference

NO

TOPIK

POINTANDINTERVAL ESTIMATION

DEFNISI the analyst should keep in mind the fact that analytic methods should also be used to identify the underlying process dynamics and to control and improve the processes involved. So far, we have introduced a number of important statistics including the sample mean, the sample standard deviation, and the sample variance. These sample statistics are called point estimators because they are single values used to represent population parameters. It is also possible to construct an interval about the statistics that has a predetermined probability of including the true population parameter

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HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Statistical inference generally involves four steps: 1. Formulating a hypothesis about the population or state of nature, 2. Collecting a sample of observations from the population,

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TOPIK

DEFNISI

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RESAMPLING (BOOTSTRAPPING)

KETERANGAN 3. Calculating statistics based on the sample, 4. Either accepting or rejecting the hypothesis based on a predetermined acceptance criterion. A number of criticisms have been raised regarding the methods used for estimation and hypothesis testing: . They are not intuitive. . They are based on strong assumptions (e.g., normality) that are often not met in practice. . They are dicult to learn and to apply. . They are error-prone.

PRINCIPLES OF STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL A central concept in statistical process control (SPC) is that every measurable phenomenon is a statistical distribution. In other words, an observed set of data constitutes a sample of the effects of unknown common causes. It

DISTRIBUTIONS

NO

TOPIK

DEFNISI follows that, after we have done everything to eliminate special causes of variations, there will still remain a certain amount of variability exhibiting the state of control The central limit theorem can be stated as follows: Irrespective of the shape of the distribution of the population or universe, the distribution of average values of samples drawn from that universe will tend toward a normal distribution as the sample size grows without bound. A process control system is essentially a feedback system that links process outcomes with process inputs. There are four main elements involved, the process itself, information about the process, action taken on the process, and action taken on the output from the process A phenomenon will be said to be controlled when, through the use of past experience, we can predict, at least within limits, how the phenomenon

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CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM

PREVENTION VERSUS DETECTION

Common and special causes of variation

NO

TOPIK

DEFNISI may be expected to vary in the future. Here it is understood that prediction within limits means that we can state, at least approximately, the probability that the observed phenomenon will fall within the given limits

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