Protein Metabolism Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen , and sometimes other atoms.

They form the cellular structural elements, arebiochemical catalysts, and are i mportant regulators of gene expression . Nitrogen is essential to the formation of twenty different amino acids, the building blocks of all body cells. Amino ac ids are characterized by the presence of a terminal carboxyl group and an amino group in the alpha position, and they are connected by peptide bonds. Digestion breaks protein down to amino acids. If amino acids are in excess of th e body's biological requirements, they are metabolized to glycogen or fat and su bsequently used for energy metabolism. If amino acids are to be used for energy their carbon skeletons are converted to acetyl CoA, which enters the Krebs cycle for oxidation, producing ATP. The final products of protein catabolism include carbon dioxide, water, ATP, urea, and ammonia. Vitamin B 6 is involved in the metabolism (especially catabolism) of amino acids , as a cofactor in transamination reactions that transfer the nitrogen from one keto acid (an acid containing a keto group [-CO-] in addition to the acid group) to another. This is the last step in the synthesis of nonessential amino acids and the first step in amino acid catabolism. Transamination converts amino acids to L-glutamate, which undergoes oxidative deamination to form ammonia, used for the synthesis of urea. Urea is transferred through the blood to the kidneys and excreted in the urine. The glucose-alanine cycle is the main pathway by which amino groups from muscle amino acids are transported to the liver for conversion to glucose. The liver is the main site of catabolism for all essential amino acids, except the branchedchain amino acids, which are catabolized mainly by muscle and the kidneys. Plasm a amino-acid levels are affected by dietary carbohydrate through the action of i nsulin, which lowers plasma amino-acid levels (particularly the branched-chain a mino acids) by promoting their entry into the muscle. Body proteins are broken down when dietary supply of energy is inadequate during illness or prolonged starvation. The proteins in the liver are utilized in pref erence to those of other tissues such as the brain. The gluconeogenesis pathway is present only in liver cells and in certain kidney cells. Disorders of amino acid metabolism include phenylketonuria , albinism, alkaptonu ria, type 1 tyrosinaemia, nonketotic hyperglycinaemia, histidinaemia, homocystin uria, and maple syrup urine disease.

Fat (Lipid) Metabolism Fats contain mostly carbon and hydrogen, some oxygen, and sometimes other atoms. The three main forms of fat found in food are glycerides (principally triacylgl ycerol [triglyceride], the form in which fat is stored for fuel), the phospholip ids , and the sterols(principally cholesterol ). Fats provide 9 kilocalories per gram (kcal/g), compared with 4 kcal/g for carbohydrate and protein. Triacylglyc erol, whether in the form of chylomicrons (microscopic lipid particles) or other lipoproteins , is not taken up directly by any tissue, but must be hydrolyzed o utside the cell to fatty acids and glycerol, which can then enter the cell. Fatty acids come from the diet , adipocytes (fat cells), carbohydrate, and some amino acids. After digestion, most of the fats are carried in the blood as chylo microns. The main pathways of lipid metabolism are lipolysis, betaoxidation, ket osis , and lipogenesis. Lipolysis (fat breakdown) and beta-oxidation occurs in the mitochondria. It is a cyclical process in which two carbons are removed from the fatty acid per cycle in the form of acetyl CoA, which proceeds through the Krebs cycle to produce AT P, CO 2 , and water. Ketosis occurs when the rate of formation of ketones by the liver is greater tha

n the ability of tissues to oxidize them. It occurs during prolonged starvation and when large amounts of fat are eaten in the absence of carbohydrate. Lipogenesis occurs in the cytosol. The main sites of triglyceride synthesis are the liver, adipose tissue, and intestinal mucosa. The fatty acids are derived fr om the hydrolysis of fats, as well as from the synthesis of acetyl CoA through t he oxidation of fats, glucose, and some amino acids. Lipogenesis from acetyl CoA also occurs in steps of two carbon atoms. NADPH produced by the pentose-phospha te shunt is required for this process. Phospholipids form the interior and exter ior cell membranes and are essential for cell regulatory signals.