Electro Magnetism

A. Praveen kumar reddy (Msc physics)

History of Electricity
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Roots of electricity
goes back to 600 B.C.
where they observe ,
that piece of amber
when rubbed with fur
attracted a bit pieces
of straw.

Magnetism are also
ancient and observe
that it is attracting iron
materials .
Amber
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Electricity and Magnetism
were treated as separate until
1820 .

Hans christian Oersted
discovered that current
passing through needle
deflect magnetic needle.
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History of electricity
At 600 B.C. Greeks observed that amber
when rubbed with fur cloth attracting
materials.

This has been a great mystery for 2000
years.
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History of electricity
After 2000 Years , william
gilbert a physician of queen
elizebeth studied these
phenomenon and named
the attraction as electrical
attraction.

He also concluded from his
experiments that earth is a
huge magnet.
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History of electricity
In 1752, Franklin proved
that lightning and the
spark from amber were
one and the same thing

He invented the
Lightning rod , first
practical application of
electricity
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History of electricity
Lugi Galvani found that limbs
of dead frog stretched when
electricity touched their limbs
. He assumed that activation
of muscles is due to
electricity.
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Volta disagreed
experiment results of
Galvani , and he
observed that is due
to different metals not
with animal.
History of electricity
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Volta showed that when moisture comes
between two different metals, electricity
is created. This led him to invent the
first electric battery, the voltaic pile,
which he made from thin sheets of copper
and zinc separated by moist pasteboard.
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History of electricity
Volta showed a new way of electricity that
steadily can move from one place to
another place , instead of discharging
instantly.
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The credit for generating electric current
on a practical scale goes to the famous
English scientist, Michael Faraday.

In 1831, Faraday found the solution.
Electricity could be produced through
magnetism by motion. He discovered that
when a magnet was moved inside a coil of
copper wire, a tiny electric current flows
through the wire.

Faraday also realized that the electric force
is transmitted by a electric field.
History of electricity
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History of electricity
DC generator was built by
Thomas Alva Edison.

Incandescent lamp discovered
by Thomos Alva Edison and
Swan independently and it is
one of practical application of
electricity.
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History of electricity
When Edison's generator
was coupled with Watt's
steam engine, large scale
electricity generation
became a practical
proposition.
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History of electricity
Westinghouse was a famous American inventor and
industrialist who purchased and developed Nikola
Tesla's patented motor for generating alternating
current.

Adoption of AC generation enabled the transmission
of large blocks of electrical, power using higher
voltages via transformers, which would have been
impossible otherwise.

This has declined the usage of DC motors.
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Maxwell developed Electro
magnetic equations.

Maxwells equations are
laws for electromagnetism
as Newton laws are for
gravity.
History of electricity
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Now we go to main concepts
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Structure of matter
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We discuss
Static electricity
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Static electricity
The electromagnetic force between charged
particles is one of the fundamental forces of
nature.

A number of simple experiments demonstrate
the existence of electric forces and charges.
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Static electricity
After running a comb through your hair on a dry
day, you will find that the comb attracts bits of
paper.
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Static electricity
When materials behave in this way, they are
said to be electrified, or to have become
electrically charged. (simply by rubbing)

In a series of simple experiments, it was found
that there are two kinds of electric charges,
which were given the names positive and
negative by Benjamin Franklin
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Properties of charge
Like charges repel each other and unlike
charges attract
Charge is always conserved
Charge is quantized.
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Charging a body by induction
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Electroscope
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Columbs law
Charles Coulomb (17361806) measured the magnitudes of the electric forces
between charged objects using the torsion balance, which he invented .


Coulomb confirmed that the electric force between two small charged spheres
is proportional to the inverse square of their separation distance r
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Electric field
It is a space or region
where it effect can
felt by keeping a test
charge



E = F/q
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Net Force on any charge
At any point P, the total electric field due to
a group of source charges equals the
vector sum of the electric fields of all the
charges.
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Electric field due to continuous
charge distribution
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If a charge Q is uniformly distributed throughout a volume V,
the volume charge density is defined by
If a charge Q is uniformly distributed on a surface of area A, the surface charge
density is defined by
If a charge Q is uniformly distributed along a line of length l, the linear charge
density is defined by
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If the charge is nonuniformly distributed over a volume, surface, or line, the
amounts of charge dq in a small volume, surface, or length element are
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We have defined the electric field
mathematically We now explore a
means of representing the electric
field pictorially.

A convenient way of visualizing
electric field patterns is to draw
curved lines that are parallel to the
electric field vector at any point in
space. These lines, called electric
field lines and first introduced by
Faraday
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Electric field lines of various
charges
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Motion of charged particle in
uniform electric field
When a particle of charge q and mass m
subjected to an electric field E, then net force
exerted on the particle
Fe = qe = ma
Then according to newton second law ,accelertion
of charge is given by
a =qE/m
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Gauss law
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Electric flux
Electric flux is proportional to the
number of electric field
lines penetrating some surface.
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If the surface under
consideration is not
perpendicular to the
field, the flux through
it must be less than
that given by
Electric flux
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Gauss law
We are often interested in
evaluating the flux through a closed
surface, which is defined as one
that divides space into an inside
and an outside region, so that one
cannot move from one region to
the other without crossing the
surface. The surface of a sphere,
for example, is a closed surface.
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Gauss law
we describe a general relationship
between the net electric flux through a
closed surface (often called a gaussian
surface) and the charge enclosed by the
surface. This relationship, known as
Gausss law, is of fundamental importance
in the study of electric fields.
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Gauss law - definition
the net flux through any closed surface surrounding a
point charge q is given by q/0 and is independent of the
shape of that surface.
the net electric flux through a closed surface that
surrounds no charge is zero.
the electric field due to many charges is the vector sum
of the electric fields produced by the individual charges.
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Gauss law formula
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Gauss law and its applications
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Now we will understand
Electric potential
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Work Done by Uniform Electric Field
Force on charge is
E q F

0
=
Ed q Fd W
b a 0
= =

The Electric Force is a conservative force

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Electric Potential Energy
( ) U U U W
a b b a
A = =

( )
a b uniform
b
a
a b
y y qE s d F U U = =
}

The work done only depends upon the

change in position
The work done by the force is the same
as the change in the particles potential
energy
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General Points
1) Potential Energy increases if the particle
moves in the direction opposite to the
force on it
Work will have to be done by
an external agent for this to
occur
2) Potential Energy decreases if the particle
moves in the same direction as the force on
it
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Suppose we have two charges q and q
0

separated by a distance r
The force between the two charges is given by
Coulombs Law
2
0
0
4
1
r
q q
F
c t
=
We now displace charge q
0
along a radial line
from point a to point b
The force is not constant during this displacement
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = =
} }

b a
r
r
r
r
r b a
r r
q q
dr
r
q q
dr F W
b
a
b
a
1 1
4 4
1
0
0
2
0
0
c t c t
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The work done is not
dependent upon the
path taken in getting
from point a to point b
r d F

Potential Energy of Two Point Charges

The work done is related
to the component of the
force along the
displacement
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Case 1: Potential Energy of one charge with respect to others
Given several charges, q
1
q
n
, in place
Now a test charge, q
0
, is brought into
position
Work must be done against the electric fields
of the original charges
This work goes into the potential energy of q
0

We calculate the potential energy of q
0
with respect to each of the other
charges and then
Just sum the individual potential energies

=
i
i
i
q
r
q q
PE
0
0
4
1
0
c t
Remember - Potential Energy is a Scalar
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Start by putting first charge in position
Next bring second charge into place
No work is necessary to do this
Now work is done by the electric field of the first charge. This work
goes into the potential energy between these two charges.
Now the third charge is put into place
Work is done by the electric fields of the two previous charges. There
are two potential energy terms for this step.
We continue in this manner until all the charges are in place

=
< j i
j i
j i
system
r
q q
PE
0
4
1
c t
The total potential is then given
by
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General Points for either positive or negative charges
The Potential increases if you move in the
direction opposite to the electric field
and
The Potential decreases if you move in the
same direction as the electric field
Electric Potential
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Work and Potential
The work done by the electric force in moving
a test charge from point a to point b is given
by
} }
= =

b
a
b
a
b a
l d E q l d F W

0
Dividing through by the test charge q
0
we have
}
=
b
a
b a
l d E V V

}
=
b
a
a b
l d E V V

Rearranging so the order of the
subscripts is the same on both sides
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Equipotential Surfaces
It is possible to move a test charge from one
point to another without having any net work
done on the charge
This occurs when the beginning and end
points have the same potential
It is possible to map out such points and a
given set of points at the same potential form
an equipotential surface
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Equipotential Surfaces
Examples of equipotential surfaces
Point Charge
Two Positive Charges
The electric field is perpendicular to the equipotential surface

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Now we understand
Capacitance
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Storing Charges- Capacitors
A capacitor consists of 2 conductors
of any shape placed near one another
without touching. It is common; to fill
up the region between these 2
conductors with an insulating material
called a dielectric. We charge these
plates with opposing charges to
set up an electric field.
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Measuring Capacitance
V
Q
C
CV Q
C
V Q
Therefore Q E
d if E
Ed V
=
=
=
=
A
= A
= A
e Capacitanc C
ality proportion of contant
constant , V
,
o
o
o
The unit for capacitance is the FARAD, F.
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Capacitor Geometry
The capacitance of a
capacitor depends on
HOW you make it.
d
A
C
Nm
C
x
d
A
C
A
C A C
o
o
c
c
c
c
o
o o
=
=
=
=
=
=

2
2
12
o
o
10 85 . 8
constant ty permittivi vacuum
ality proportion of constant
plates beteween distance d
plate of area
d
1
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Dielectric
Remember, the dielectric is an insulating material placed
between the conductors to help store the charge. In the
previous example we assumed there was NO dielectric and
thus a vacuum between the plates.
Dielectric =
=
k
d
A
k C
o
c
All insulating materials have a dielectric
constant associated with it. Here now
you can reduce the AREA and use a
LARGE dielectric to establish the
capacitance at 1 F.
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Capacitors in Series
Capacitors in series each charge each other by INDUCTION. So
they each have the SAME charge. The electric potential on the
other hand is divided up amongst them. In other words, the sum
of the individual voltages will equal the total voltage of the battery
or power source.
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Capacitors in Parallel
In a parallel configuration, the voltage is the same
because ALL THREE capacitors touch BOTH ends
of the battery. As a result, they split up the charge
amongst them.
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Potential Energy of a Capacitor
Since the AREA under the line is a
triangle, the ENERGY(area) =1/2VQ
C
Q
Q
C
Q
U
CV VC V U
V
Q
C VQ U
C
C
C
2
) (
2
1
2
1
) (
2
1
2
1
2
2
=
=
= =
This energy or area is referred
as the potential energy stored
inside a capacitor.

Note: The slope of the line is
the inverse of the capacitance.
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Current electricity
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How is current produced?
When a high potential is connected by a
conductive material to a low potential.
Flow of electrons is called electric current.
Units: C/s = Amperes (Amps)
I = Q/t
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When the potentials are equal, the current
stops flowing
To increase the potential of the electrons an
electron pump must convert (do work) another
form of energy into electrical potential energy.
Electron pump examples:
Voltaic or galvanic cell (dry cell)
Several cells connected (Battery)
Photovoltaic cell (solar cell)
Generator

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Two types of current
Direct Current (D.C.) Flow of electrons in only
one direction
Battery

Alternating Current (A.C.) Flow of electrons at
first in one direction and then the other direction.
Generator
In your House
60 Hertz

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What affects current flow?
Potential Difference Voltage
Resistance - slowing or reduction of the flow of
current
Resistance depends on the material, length of
material, and the cross sectional area of the material
through which the current is moving.
R is resistance, is resistivity,
L is length, A is the cross sectional area
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Ohms Law
Ohms Law stated The ratio of V/I is a
constant, where V is the voltage applied
across a piece of material (such as wire)
and I is the current through the material.
R is the resistance of the piece of
material.
Units: Ohms (O) = Volt/amp
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Electric Power
When there is current (I) in a circuit as a
result of a voltage (V), the electric power (P)
delivered to the circuit is:

Units: watts = amp x volt = J/s
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Electric Power
Many electrical devices become
hot when provided with sufficient
electric power. Toasters, irons,
space heaters, heating elements
in electric stoves, and
incandescent light bulbs. In such
cases it is possible to obtain two
equivalent power equations


When electric energy is
transferred into thermal energy in
a resistor, the increase in thermal
energy is:


units: Kilowatt hour or Joules
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Current in electric Circuits
An electric Circuit is a closed loop.
Basic Circuits consist of three things:
Electron pump (Battery)
Device that reduces potential. (User)
Conducting connections (Wires)

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Series Circuits
Only one path for current to follow
User followed by another user (ie.
Resistor followed by a light)
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Current is the same for each user
The effective resistance is the sum of all
resistors in the series

The sum of the voltage drop is equal to the
total voltage drop


Series Circuit Rules
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Parallel Circuits
Two or more paths for current to follow
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Parallel Circuit Rules
Total current in the circuit is the sum of the
current in all its paths (branches)

The equivalent resistance decreases with
more parallel resistors


Voltage is the same in each path.
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Magnetism
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Magnetite
Term comes from the ancient Greek city of
Magnesia, at which many natural magnets
were found. We now refer to these natural
magnets as lodestones (also spelled loadstone;
lode means to lead or to attract) which contain
magnetite, a natural magnetic material Fe
3
O
4
.

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Relation with electricity

Not until 1819 was a connection between electrical and
magnetic phenomena shown. Danish scientist Hans Christian
Oersted observed that a compass needle in the vicinity of a
wire carrying electrical current was deflected!

In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered that a momentary
current existed in a circuit when the current in a nearby
circuit was started or stopped

Shortly thereafter, he discovered that motion of a magnet
toward or away from a circuit could produce the same effect.
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All magnetic
phenomena result
from forces between
electric charges in
motion.
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Important points to learn about
magnetism
1. There are North Poles and South Poles.

2. Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.

3. Magnetic forces attract only magnetic materials.

4. Magnetic forces act at a distance.

5. While magnetized, temporary magnets act like permanent
magnets.
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Important points to learn about
magnetism
6. A coil of wire with an electric current flowing through it becomes a
magnet.

7. Putting iron inside a current-carrying coil increases the strength of the
electromagnet.

8. A changing magnetic field induces an electric current in a conductor.

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Important points to learn about
magnetism
9. A charged particle experiences no magnetic force when moving parallel to
a magnetic field, but when it is moving perpendicular to the field it
experiences a force perpendicular to both the field and the direction of
motion.


10. A current-carrying wire in a perpendicular magnetic field experiences a
force in a direction perpendicular to both the wire and the field.
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No single pole exists
Every magnet has at least one north pole and one south pole. By
convention, we say that the magnetic field lines leave the North end of a
magnet and enter the South end of a magnet.

If you take a bar magnet and break it into two pieces, each piece will again
have a North pole and a South pole. If you take one of those pieces and
break it into two, each of the smaller pieces will have a North pole and a
South pole. No matter how small the pieces of the magnet become, each
piece will have a North pole and a South pole.
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Force on charge
We will say that a moving charge sets up in the space around it
a magnetic field,

and

it is the magnetic field which exerts a force on any other
charge moving through it.
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Force Due to Magnetic Field
The force exerted on a charged particle by a magnetic field is
given by the vector cross product:
F = q v B sinu
F = force (vector)
q = charge on the particle (scalar)
v = velocity of the particle relative to field (vector)
B = magnetic field (vector)
F = q v B
Recall that the magnitude of a cross is the product of the magnitudes of the vectors times
the sine of the angle between them. So, the magnitude of the magnetic force is given by
where u is angle between q v and B vectors.
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Defining magnetic field direction
Magnetic Field vectors as written as B
Direction of magnetic field at any point is defined
as the direction of motion of a charged particle on
which the magnetic field would not exert a force.
Magnitude of the B-vector is proportional to the
force acting on the moving charge, magnitude of the
moving charge, the magnitude of its velocity, and the
angle between v and the B-field. Unit is the Tesla or
the Gauss (1 T = 10,000 G).
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Magnetic field lines
Magnetic field lines describe the structure of magnetic fields
in three dimensions.They are defined as follows. If at any
point on such a line we place an ideal compass needle, free to
turn in any direction (unlike the usual compass needle, which
stays horizontal) then the needle will always point along the
field line.

Field lines converge where the magnetic force is strong, and
spread out where it is weak. For instance, in a compact bar
magnet or "dipole," field lines spread out from one pole and
converge towards the other, and of course, the magnetic
force is strongest near the poles where they come together.
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Iron fillings around bar magnet
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Force on the charge
Right Hand Rule!
Put your fingers in the direction of motion of the charge,
curl them in the direction of the magnetic field. Your thumb
now points in the direction of the magnetic force acting on
the charge. This force will bend the path of the moving
charge appropriately.
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Magnetic force on current carrying wire
Since moving charges experience a force in a magnetic field, a current-
carrying wire will experience such a force, since a current consists of moving
charges. This property is at the heart of a number of devices.
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An electric motor, is a
machine which converts
electrical energy into
mechanical (rotational or
kinetic) energy.

A current is passed
through a loop which is
immersed in a magnetic
field. A force exists on
the top leg of the loop
which pulls the loop out
of the paper, while a
force on the bottom leg
of the loop pushes the
loop into the paper.
The net effect of these forces is
to rotate the loop.
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Electro magnet
An electromagnet is simply a coil of wires which, when a
current is passed through, generate a magnetic field, as
below.
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Types of magnetic materials
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Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetism - When a ferromagnetic material is placed near a
magnet, it will be attracted toward the region of greater magnetic
field. This is what we are most familiar with when our magnet picks
up a bunch of paperclips. Iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium, dysprosium
and alloys containing these elements exhibit ferromagnetism
because of the way the electron spins within one atom interact with
those of nearby atoms. They will align themselves, creating
magnetic domains forming a permanent magnet. If a piece of iron is
placed within a strong magnetic field, the domains in line with the
field will grow in size as the domains perpendicular to the field will
shrink in size.
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Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism - When a diamagnetic material is placed near a
magnet, it will be repelled from the region of greater magnetic
field, just opposite to a ferromagnetic material. It is exhibited
by all common materials, but is very weak. People and frogs are
diamagnetic. Metals such as bismuth, copper, gold, silver and lead,
as well as many nonmetals such as water and most organic
compounds are diamagnetic.
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Paramagnetism
Paramagnetism - When a paramagnetic material is placed
near a magnet, it will be attracted to the region of greater magnetic
field, like a ferromagnetic material. The difference is that the
attraction is weak. It is exhibited by materials containing transition
elements, rare earth elements and actinide elements. Liquid oxygen and
aluminum are examples of paramagnetic materials.
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Induced EMF
Almost 200 years ago, Faraday looked for evidence that a magnetic field
would induce an electric current with this apparatus:
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Induced EMF
He found no evidence when the current was steady, but did see a current
induced when the switch was turned on or off.
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Faradays Law of Induction; Lenzs Law
The induced emf in a wire loop is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic
flux through the loop.
Magnetic flux:
Unit of magnetic flux: weber, Wb.
1 Wb = 1 Tm
2
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Faradays law of induction:
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Magnetic flux will change if the area of the loop changes:
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Magnetic flux will change if the angle between the loop and the field changes:
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Mutual inductance: a changing current in one coil will induce a current in a
second coil.
And vice versa; note that the constant M, known as the mutual inductance, is
the same:
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Unit of inductance: the henry, H.
1 H = 1 Vs/A = 1 s.
A transformer is an example of
mutual inductance.
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A changing current in a coil will also induce an emf in itself:
Here, L is called the self-inductance.
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Maxwells equations
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Law Mathematical
Statement
Physical
Meaning
Gauss for E
0
q
d
c
=
}
E A
How q produces E;
E lines begin & end on qs.
Gauss for B
Faraday
Ampere
(Steady I only)
4 Laws of EM (incomplete)
0 d =
}
B A
B
d
d
dt
u
=
}
E r
0
d I =
}
B r
No magnetic monopole;
B lines form loops.
Changing u
B
gives emf.
Moving charges give B.
Note E-B asymmetry between the Faraday & Ampere laws.
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B in a RC circuit.
Amperes law:
0
C
d I =
}
B r
I is current through any open surface S bounded by C.
Current flows through surfaces 1,2,& 4.
But not 3.
Amperes law fails ( for non-steady current ).
Maxwells modification:
0 0 0
E
C
d
d I
dt
c
u
= +
}
B r
0
Displacement current
E
d
dt
c
u
=
Changing u
E
gives I , which in turn gives
B.
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Law Mathematical
Statement
Physical
Meaning
Gauss for E
0
q
d
c
=
}
E A
How q produces E;
E lines begin & end on qs.
Gauss for B
Faraday
Ampere-
Maxwell
0 d =
}
B A
B
d
d
dt
u
=
}
E r
No magnetic monopole;
B lines form loops.
Changing u
B
gives emf.
Moving charges &
changing u
E
give B.
0 0 0
E
d
d I
dt
c
u
= +
}
B r
Maxwells Eqs (1864).
Classical electromagnetism.
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Electromagnetic (EM) waves
Faradays law:
Ampere-Maxwells law:
changing B gives E.
changing E gives B.
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Electro magnetic spectrum
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Modern world is not possible with out
understanding these electro magnetic
phenomena.
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Any doubts
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