ASSIGNMENT

Health, Safety & Environmental Engineering

Submitted To:

Prof. Dr. Zafar Rashid

Submitted By:

Umairah Farrukh MS (TQM) ROLL# 47 SECTION B

Institute of Quality and Technology Management, The University of Punjab, Lahore

Sustainable Development
Sustainable Development means development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development is based on a long-term approach which takes into account the inextricable nature of the environmental, social and economic dimensions of development activities. Technologies that conserve natural resources contribute to sustainability. There are two fundamental principles of sustainability: Reduction in societys use of nonrenewable natural resources. In the long term, solutions must be market based.

Objectives of Sustainable Development

These objectives are: Maintain a dynamic balance of arable land (not less than 123 million hectares) and implement an agricultural development strategy. Maintain a dynamic balance of water resources by reducing water consumption for every unit of gross development product growth and agricultural value added. Import large quantities of oil and natural gas. Control emissions of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide by large cities and industries and close high-pollution thermal power plants. Compensate for forest deficit with trade surplus by reducing timber production and increase timber import. Continue to implement the family planning program.

 Import large quantities of iron ore, copper, zinc, aluminum, and other minerals and encourage foreign participation in resource exploration and development. Make time-bound commitments to clean up large cities, rivers, and lakes and forcefully close down seriously polluting enterprises. Implement a massive ecological construction project to slow down ecological degradation. Develop the environmental industry and eco-buildup to expand domestic demand, increase employment, and alleviate poverty.

SET OF OBJECTIVES Social Economic Environmental SET OF PROCESSES Participation Communications Analysis Debate Investment Capacity-strengthening

SYSTEM PROVIDING CO-ORDINATION AND COHERENCE

Rationale For A systematic Approach To Strategies For Sustainable Development

For Industrial Sector:

BioDiversity
"Biodiversity" is most commonly used to replace the more clearly defined and long established terms, species diversity and species richness. Biologists most often define biodiversity as the "totality of genes, species, and eco ecosystems of a region". A unified view of the traditional three levels at which biological variety has been identified:

species diversity ecosystem diversity genetic diversity

Evolution:
Biodiversity is the result of 3.5 billion years of evolution. The origin of life has not been definitely established by science, however some evidence suggests that life may already have been well-established only a few hundred million years after the formation of the Earth. Until approximately 600 million years ago, all life consisted of archaea, bacteria, protozoans and similar singlecelled organisms.

Gene pool
The gene pool is the set of all genes, or genetic information, in any population, usually of a particular species. This also proves to be the basic level at which evolution occurs. Description: A large gene pool indicates extensive genetic diversity, which is associated with robust populations that can survive bouts of intense selection. Meanwhile, low genetic diversity can cause reduced biological fitness and an increased chance of extinction, although as explained by genetic drift new genetic variants, that may

cause an increase in the fitness of organisms, are more likely to fix in the population if it is rather small.

Genetic Engineering:
Genetic engineering techniques have been applied in numerous fields including research, agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine. Enzymes used in laundry detergent and medicines such as insulin and human growth hormone are now manufactured in GM cells, experimental GM cell lines and GM animals such as mice or zebrafish are being used for research purposes, and genetically modified crops have been commercialized.

Biodiversity as a key-factor for Sustainable Development

Introduction:
Solving the problem of environmental threats and a dwindling biodiversity has been on the international agenda for some decades now. The formulation of environmental questions, however, is changing slowly. There has been a tendency to define those questions in sectoral environmental terms, like soil, air, water, and nature (conservation). This approach indeed has been an important first step, because solving these questions contributed to the direct conservation of nature being threatened. In the meantime the majority of national states have decided (WSSD, Johannesburg 2002) to make a next step in conservation - and poverty alleviation by adopting the idea of sustainable societies. The basis for this concept came largely from two other United Nations views: those on development and those on biodiversity issues. The former were expressed in the Millennium Development Goals and the Declaration of the UN General Assembly, September 2000. The latter find their basis in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, Rio de Janeiro, 1992). The objectives of this convention are threefold, interalia: The conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic

resources, which should include appropriate access to genetic resources and appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights over those resources and technologies, and access to appropriate funding.

Explanation:
Along these lines diverse groups within the CBD system have elaborated some of these principles, like the Ecosystem approach and the Addis Ababa Principles and Guidelines' directed towards the sustainable use of biodiversity. What, then, is biodiversity about? The CBD defined it as: Biological diversity or biodiversity - is the term given to the variety of life on earth and the natural patterns it forms. This diversity is often understood in terms of the wide variety of plants, animals and micro-organisms. So far, about 1,75 million species have been identified, mostly small creatures such as insects. Biodiversity also includes genetic differences within each species - for example, between varieties of crops and breeds of livestock. Yet another aspect of biodiversity is the variety of ecosystems such as those that occur in deserts, forests, wetlands, mountains, lakes, rivers, and agricultural landscapes. In each ecosystem, living creatures, including humans, form a community, interacting with one another and with the air, water, and soil around them. Biodiversity is not identical to nature as so often is claimed; rather it is an aspect, a characteristic of nature on various levels: genes, species and ecosystems. With this convention the worldwide focus on conservation measures in its pure sense has shifted towards the inclusion of social and economic issues. In other words: parties that have signed and ratified this convention (187 countries and the European Community) have gained the view that conservation of nature cannot be achieved anymore by conservation measures alone.

Ecosystems and human needs:

As human societies become more and more complex and technologically advanced, it is easy to gain the impression that we no longer depend on natural systems. A steadily increasing proportion of people live in cities, in environments dominated by human-built structures and machinery. Even in rural areas, conservation of natural spaces is often seen as a luxury that has little to do with the well-being of local people.

It may seem that people have distanced themselves from nature, however, the reverse is true: they still rely on the services it delivers. Ecosystems may be brought, therefore, into a direct combination with the satisfaction of human needs, the so-called ecological services. Various types of ecosystems like the ones mentioned below provide a set of services to human popula-tions. Their ability to deliver these services depends on complex biological, chemical and physical interactions, which are in turn affected by human activities. The ecosystems can be defined in the following categories: Mountain and polar areas Inland waters Cultivated areas Coastal areas Forest and woodland areas Dry lands Urban areas Islands Marine areas.

If we take, as an example, the ecosystem inland waters from the list, this type of ecosystem provides, among others, services like fresh water, food, sediment retention and transport, recreation and tourism. The interesting thought of ecosystems providing for human needs is based on the idea that the first priority for global development, apart from poverty alleviation, now is to keep these functions going. With this assessment we have reached a situation that goes far beyond the relative luxury of conserving pure, undisturbed nature: the very functioning of the whole planet in all its elements is at stake. For governments this may mean that their policies directed towards the Millennium Development Goals (see above) cannot be achieved without taking this ecological approach as one of their strategic foundations.

Green Chemistry
Green chemistry, also known as sustainable chemistry, is the design of chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the use or generation of hazardous substances. Green chemistry applies across the life cycle of a chemical product, including its design, manufacture, and use. Green chemistry technologies provide a number of benefits, including: reduced waste, eliminating costly end-of-the-pipe treatments safer products reduced use of energy and resources improved competitiveness of chemical manufacturers and their customers

The Triple-Bottom-Line Approach

The term sustainability often conjures images of green roofs, renewable energy, bicycles, electric cars, and anything that is considered green. This narrow definition of sustainability focuses almost solely on products, actions, and initiatives that conserve and protect the natural environment. While environmental sustainability (i.e. meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs) is one aspect of sustainability as a whole, a focus on the environmental aspects of sustainability only will not ultimately produce a sustainable result. Triple-Bottom-Line Sustainability is based around the concept of the 3 Es: Environment, Equity, and Economics (alternately, the 3 Ps: Planet, People, and Profits) as interrelated in their ultimate success or failure. Being a good steward of the environment by leaving it in a better condition than you found it is certainly a key goal of sustainability and sustainability planning. It is demonstrated, however, that an individuals concern for environmental stewardship increases as his or her prosperity increases. This can be expressed in the adage that a starving man would much rather eat an endangered lion than protect it. Likewise, an increase of social equitybroadly defined as individual empowerment and stakeholdership in a communityincreases an individuals desire and motivation to improve that community, since he or she is effectively improving his or her personal investment in that place.

The triple-bottom-line approach acknowledges the three pillars of sustainabilityenvironmental stewardship, improved social equity, and increased economic developmentas equal in their impact on allowing current generations to meet their needs while protecting the ability of future generations to do the same. Furthermore, it recognizes and capitalizes on the fact the three pillars of sustainability can be leveraged against one another to increase the positive outcomes of each beyond what would be possible if each pillar were addressed separately. This is due to the fact that most sustainability initiativesregardless of their specific focuswhich occur in the sphere of cities require some degree of investment of city funds. If one of the effects of the initiatives is to increase property value or stimulate economic activity, the tax base may increase enough to fully offset the cost of the initiative or beyond. In addition, an increase in property value improves the investment of individual residents, makes the community more desirable, and may lead to an increase in other investments, both public and private. This has the effect of increasing social equity by improving each individual residents investment in their community and its return. An example of this type of success would be the development of public transit. Through increased efficiency, mass transit lowers the per-capita carbon emissions of each user, when compared to transportation by car. This can have a measurable impact on environmental sustainability. Proximity and access to public transit also has the effect of raising property values, which can provide a positive economic impact to both the city (through an increased tax base) and individuals (through an increase of value in their real estate.) Regular use of public transit also reduces annual transportation costs to individual households, which increases an individuals real wealth. This increase in wealth can have a positive effect on both individual economic impact as well as an increase in social equity, because it enhances individual empowerment within a community. The Plan is a triple-bottom-line plan that frames proposed neighborhood improvements and recommendation through the lenses of environment, equity, and economics. Each initiative that is proposed as part of this plan is rated on each of 32 specific evaluation criteria, categorized by the three pillars. This evaluation of specific actions and recommendations will be useful to the City of University City in prioritizing action items and achieving measurable results.

Economy:
Market development Local business support Job opportunities Affordable housing

Social:
Educational opportunity Neighborhood vitality Social & cultural diversity Community empowerment Self-governance Active living Health and safety Food system

Environment:
Stormwater Water conservation Air quality Renewable energy Energy use reduction GHG reduction Green infrastructure Placemaking/character Parks & open space Green buildings Tree canopy Native species Biodiversity Planning Land use Waste minimization Mobility Transportation

For Power Sector:

BioMass
In the developed world biomass is becoming more important for dual applications such As a heat source. As a source of energy. Biomass is a clean renewable energy resource derived from the waste of various human and natural activities. It excludes organic material which has been transformed by geological processes into substances such as coal or petroleum.

Working:
The harnessing of energy from biological mass (biomass) is a simple process. The waste wood and other sources are gathered in big trucks. The waste is then transported to a biomass plant. Here, the waste is fed into furnaces where it is burned. The heat created is used to boil water and the energy from the steam is used to rotate turbines and generators. The second method, through which energy is created, is called Landfill Gas. When garbage is burned or is allowed to decompose it gives off methane gas. Pipelines are put into the landfills (pits in which garbage is burned) and the methane gas is collected. It is then used to make energy in power plants. The use of biomass can help reduce Global Warming. Plants use and store carbon dioxide (CO2) when they grow. When it burns or decomposes, it releases the CO2. Replanting plants, crops or trees etc. ensures that the C02 is reused. If the plants are not replanted the biomass will disrupt the natural carbon equilibrium and thus continue to contribute towards Global Warming.

BioGas
Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Organic waste such as dead plant and animal material, animal feces, and kitchen waste can be converted into a gaseous fuel called biogas. Biogas originates from biogenic material and is a type of bio fuel.

Benefits of Biogas:
When biogas is used, many advantages arise. In North America, utilization of biogas would generate enough electricity to meet up to three percent of the continent's electricity expenditure. In addition, biogas could potentially help reduce global climate change. Normally, manure that is left to decompose releases two main gases that cause global climate change: nitrogen dioxide and methane. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) warms the atmosphere 310 times more than carbon dioxide and methane 21 times more than carbon dioxide. By converting cow manure into methane biogas via anaerobic digestion, the millions of cows in the United States would be able to produce one hundred billion kilowatt hours of electricity, enough to power millions of homes across the United States. In fact, one cow can produce enough manure in one day to generate three kilowatt hours of electricity; only 2.4 kilowatt hours of electricity are needed to power a single one hundred watt light bulb for one day. Furthermore, by converting cow manure into methane biogas instead of letting it decompose, global warming gases could be reduced by ninetynine million metric tons or four percent. In Nepal biogas is being used as a reliable source of rural energy.

BIOMASS POWER FOR ENERGY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Organic matter, particularly cellulosic or ligno-cellulosic matter is available on a renewable or recurring basis, including dedicated energy crops and trees, wood and wood residues, plants and associated residues, agricultural food and feed crop residues, plant fiber, aquatic plants, animal wastes, specific industrial waste, the paper component of municipal solid waste, other waste materials, all of them being well-known as biomass.

Sustainable Development in Industrial and Power Sector

Introduction:
Climate change is a global problem requiring the cooperation of all countries to be addressed effectively. Emissions from the industrialized North have thus far been greater than from the developing South, but they are growing rapidly in the latter.2 The principle of common, but differentiated responsibilities between industrialized and developing countries is well established in the negotiations. However, co-operation between North and South has been limited in the negotiations under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Climate change is not seen as a priority by developing countries, which are preoccupied by the challenges of meeting basic development needs. As discussions on actions beyond the first commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol (2008-2012) draws closer, the question of how developing countries might participate in the effort against global warming becomes more urgent.

The importance of sustainable development has long been recognized in the UNFCCC process. Article 3.4 of the Convention (1992) states as a principle that: Parties have a right to, and should promote, sustainable development. Policies and measures to protect the climate system against human-induced change should be appropriate to the specific condition of each Party and should be integrated with national development programmes, taking into account that economic development is essential for adopting measures to address climate change. The negotiations have, however, tended to focus on emissions targets more than sustainable development, due in part to the predominance of the interests of Northern countries. The links between sustainable development and climate change have received increasing attention in the recent literature.(ENDA-TM 2001; Beg et al. 2002; Davidson 2002; KEI 2002; Markandya & Halsnaes 2002; Shukla et al. 2002; Winkler et al. 2002a; Downing et al. 2003; IIM 2003; Munasinghe & Swart 2005) This paper outlines and proposes a pledge by

developing countries to implement sustainable development policies and measures (hereafter SD-PAMs). Development is a key priority for decision-makers in developing countries, so that building climate change policy on development priorities would make it attractive to these stakeholders. Starting from development objectives and then describing paths of more sustainable development that also address climate change may be the easiest way for many developing countries to take the first steps in longer-term action on climate change. The approach has a basis in the Convention, which, together with a proposed reporting structure, would provide sufficient stringency for a first step.

Strategies To Be Employed In Industrial & Power Sector

CASE STUDY:
Example of SD-PAMs from South Africa.

The SD-PAMs approach:

The SD-PAMs approach starts with the development objectives and needs of developing countries. Countries begin by examining their development priorities and identify how these could be achieved more sustainably, either by tightening existing policy or by implementing new measures. The next step is to identify synergies between sustainable development and climate change, that is, those SDPAMs that also result in reductions of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. To obtain a realistic picture of the impact of a basket of SD-PAMs, those policies and measures that increase GHG emissions also need to be identified.

Starting from development, shifting to sustainability:

The SD-PAMs approach suggests that we work backwards from a desired future state of development. Key development objectives typically include poverty eradication, job creation, food security, access to modern energy services, transport, drinking water, education, health services and land. Energy is an important requirement for many of these objectives. Sustainability, for the

purposes of this paper, is taken to mean providing services for basic human needs in a way that can continue over time, resulting in less impact on the environment, and providing more social benefits and long-term economic development. Development is needed because the number of houses to be built, mouths to be fed and households to be lighted and heated is growing. In meeting these basic needs, different paths are possible and the aim of SD-PAMs is to shift towards a more sustainable path of development. In describing sustainable development paths to meeting such objectives, the hypothesis is that, on balance, GHG emissions will also be reduced relative to a conventional development path. If countries act early to move to greater sustainability in their development path, they will start bending the curve of their emissions trajectory.

Steps to apply the SD-PAMs approach:

In practice, a country might undertake eight steps in considering its commitment to SD-PAMs: Outline future development objectives, for where possible quantifying the expected benefits and possible risks. If a long-term vision has been articulated, back-casting to immediate action is possible. Otherwise, it may outline shorter-term goals. Identify policies and measures that would make the development path more sustainable, primarily for reasons other than climate change (such as greater social equity and local environmental protection) while maintaining or enhancing economic growth. The sustainable development benefits should be quantified as far as possible. These SDPAMs may be: o existing sustainable development policy that is not fully implemented; or o new policies and / or more stringent measures. Register nationally selected SD-PAMs in a registry maintained by the UNFCCC secretariat. Mobilize investment and implement SD-PAMs. Set up national monitoring system to track implementation of Steps to apply the SD-PAMs approach. In practice, a country might undertake eight steps in considering its commitment to SD-PAMs: Review of SD-PAMs in SD units, either as part of national communication or a specific review.

 Quantify the changes in GHG emissions of particular SD-PAMs, which should be reported in accordance with the Convention or other reporting provisions. Summarize the net impact of a basket of SD-PAMs on development benefits and GHG emissions. Comparing the results from steps 2 and 3 will show which SD-PAMs create synergies between sustainable development objectives and climate change policy. In other cases, there will be conflicts between these goals. The information relating to climate change benefits will be useful in implementing and funding SD-PAMs, as those offering greater GHG emissions reductions can potentially attract climate change related funding. Those with greater sustainable development benefits, but no climate benefits, need to attract other funding. Some of the examples from South Africa, focusing on the energy and housing sectors. From this initial consideration, however, it appears that the majority of SD-PAMs have more potential for reducing GHG emissions than to increase emissions. The change in an energy price (the poverty tariff) is the only example of an increase here, yet its impact on overall emissions is small. Since SD-PAMs already include a shift to greater sustainability relative to conventional development, synergies are more likely.
SD-PAM Sustainable development benefits 39 000 additional jobs R800 million additional income Energy savings and load management by utility Reduced local air pollution and fuel costs, increased diversity Savings on electricity and lighting and entertainment services from free Percentage of CO2 emissions, 1999 Sectoral National N/a -2%

National electricity efficiency improved by 5% (2010) End-use Energy efficiency (2010) Increased share of cleaner electricity of 5% by 2010 Poverty tariff

5% of CO2 from electricity

-2%

-3%

+1.6% of residential CO2 emissions

+0.2% (upper bound estimate)

electricity of 20 60 kWh / household / month for 1.4 million poor households Energy efficiency Household energy -0.6% to -7% -0.01% to in low-cost savings, of residential 0.2% housing reduced indoor air CO2 pollution, emissions improved health and increased levels of comfort Note: The latest inventory of SAs GHG emissions is for 1994, so more recent emissions data in used which includes CO2 only. CO2 contributed more than 80% of SAs total GHG emissions in both the 1990 and 1994 inventories.

The examples of SD-PAMs from the energy and housing sectors have illustrated some measures with strong sustainable development benefits, some with potential for GHG emission reduction and some that meet both objectives. The analysis is not comprehensive - conducting a complete analysis across all sectors would require an inter-disciplinary team, significant time and data.

Using electricity efficiently in South African Industry:

Efficient use of electricity in South African industry can promote local development goals. Government plans to embark on an ambitious energy efficiency program, explicitly motivated by a concern for the three dimensions of sustainable development economic, social and environmental (DME 2005). The strategy aims to contribute to two major energy policy objectives: Affordable energy for all. To minimize the effects of energy usage upon human health and the environment (DME 1998). The extent to which these goals are met are a function of the technical measure. And the extent to which the measure is adopted is a function of the policy, context and the vigour of its implementation.

INDIAN POWER SECTOR REFORM FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The Crises of Indian Electricity Boards:
Indian electricity boards have been trapped in the crises of capital, access/equity/distribution, environment and performance. Capital Crisis: Severe financial losses have led to the total inability of utilities to self-finance improvements. Utilities also borrowed heavily and aggravated their losses. In the past, these losses used to be made good by government treasuries, but now, most treasuries are virtually "empty". The lack of internally generated funds and the inability of treasuries to provide funds have resulted in severe shortages of capital for expanding generating capacity. Governments (central and state) and utilities hoped to solve these capital-scarcity problems with an influx of private capital. It was believed that the indigenous private sector may not have the necessary capital. Also, the foreign exchange component of funds required by the power sector is large because very few developing countries have an indigenous electrical industry1. Hence, foreign assistance/capital has been sought/invited. Since, multilateral and bilateral funding agencies cannot meet capital requirements2, foreign private capital is being invited. Access/Equity/Distribution Crisis: The benefits of electricity do not reach the whole population -- a significant percentage (particularly the rural poor) does not have connections and therefore access to electricity. Some consumer categories are given subsidies. Benefits are skewed in favour of certain sections (e.g., irrigation pumpset owners) and certain areas (e.g., urban areas). Environmental Crisis: India is quite unusual among developing countries in that there is growing public concern about the environmental impacts of electricity generation. These concerns have focussed on pollution from coal-based thermal plants (particulates, acid rain, etc.), on the various problems of nuclear plants such as low-level radiation, disposal of high-level wastes, reactor safety and the NIMBY (Not in my backyard!) syndrome, and on the negative impacts of hydroelectric plants including the submergence of forests, the displacement of people and siltation. There are also concerns about global warming impacts.

Performance Crisis: The power sector has shown an inability to meet rising electricity consumption/ demand primarily because of declining technical performance. This decline has involves low plant-load factors, large T & D losses (technical and commercial), sub-standard voltages and frequencies, frequent loadshedding, brown-outs and black-outs, and large reserve margins. However, there have also been other problems such as uncertainties in future demand and in future supply, and diminishing scope for grid interconnections. The situation has also been complicated by the entry of new players (non-utility generators/consumers/ regulators/conservationists/ environmentalists) and the declining monopoly of utilities in decision-making (which has moved closer to consumers)

World Bank Approach:

Analysis: The World Bank which was a major funder of power projects carried out a study3 of 300 power projects between 1965 and 1983 and concluded that pursuit of electricity expansion was neither possible nor desirable for several reasons. It was believed that access has been extended sufficiently and utility performance was declining because T & D losses are high. There is under-investment in distribution leading to bottlenecks. Demand forecasts can be 20% above consumption. Sometimes, over-investment in capacity leads to over-capacity and the utility cannot handle long-term capacity expansion. Diagnosis of Sickness of Electricity Boards: The World Bank diagnosis of the sickness of electricity boards is that; (1) they suffer from centralization and excessive size, leading to inflexibility. (2) they had a monopoly position resulting in they being exploitative. (3) they were publicly owned resulting in political interference and inefficiency. World Bank's Top-down Cure: There must be much greater emphasis on restructuring and performance improvement than on capacity expansion (this view implies no further Bank funding for grid expansion). Simultaneously the three problems of centralization, monopoly and public ownership must be tackled through institutional change, financial reforms and management measures. The institutional change required is privatization involving attraction of private capital into power sector because government does have enough capital, attraction of foreign private capital into power sector because indigenous private sector may not have enough capital and sale of publicly owned utilities to the private sector.

The objectives of privatization are to solve financial crises, to restore inflow of improved technology, to introduce profit-driven investment and management decisions, to eliminate political interference, to eliminate monopoly (and thereby introduce competition), to reduce size and to decentralize decision-making. Financial reforms are necessary to make prices rise to marginal costs in order to raise level of efficiency of utilities and to attract private capital with a variety of incentives such as tax breaks, easy access to land, guarantees for repatriation of profits, power purchase agreements, and ensuring that future expansion is via low capital-intensity technologies (natural gas) to reduce gestation period. Management measures include reduction of T & D losses, emphasis on maintenance, repair and distribution, review of reserve margins and engineering standards, reduction of demand, scrutiny of electricity-GDP coupling and emphasis of conservation and load management. Two major assumptions underlie the World Bank cure: (1) Private ownership leads ipso facto to competition (2) Private ownership leads ipso facto to arms-length relationship between industry and government, and therefore to elimination of political interference.

Reform/Restructuring in the Industrialized Countries:

Since a wave of reform/restructuring has swept the industrialized countries, it is important to understand the dialectics and logic underlying the reform/restructuring of utilities in those countries. The starting point or baseline of utilities has been vertically integrated monopolies involving generation in mega-plants (~ 1,000 MW), transmission over extensive grids and distribution to end-users. Technologies for generation in smaller-scale (~100-250 MW) plants for example gas turbines and advances in cogeneration led to the growth of smaller scale independent power producers (IPPs) and co-generators demanding the right to generate electricity. This led to legislation such as the Public Utilities Regulatory Policy Act (PURPA) according to which it became mandatory for the utility to offtake and purchase surplus electricity from IPPs and co-generators at the avoided cost of generation to the utility. In addition, unrestricted access of cogenerators/IPPs to the utility-controlled grid required separation of generation from transmission. Disaggregation of distribution into bulk consumers and smaller distribution entities also took place. This meant that there should be a

regulator to prescribe the rules and oversee the generation and transmission and distribution. Computerized dispatch on merit-order basis paved the way for consumers choosing their generators. And the final step involved full-scale deregulation leading to an electricity market with customers having right to purchase electricity from any generator. There are two important features of the restructuring of the power sector in industrialized countries: 1. It was technology-driven wherein technological developments render "old" system inadequate for "new" possibilities. 2. The evolution from monopoly --> regulation --> deregulation is not driven by capital shortages, financial sickness of utilities or poor quality of electricity delivered. Thus the reform process in the industrialized countries is irrelevant to the developing countries where the arguments for power sector reform are virtually nontechnical.

References:
http://www.erc.uct.ac.za/Research/publications/05Winkler-Baumert_SDPAMS.pdf http://amulya-reddy.org.in/Publication/2000_10_draft_cpt081400.pdf http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity#References http://knowledge.cta.int/Dossiers/S-T-Issues/Biodiversity/Featurearticles/Biodiversity-as-a-key-factor-for-sustainable-development http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_pool http://library.thinkquest.org/06aug/01335/biomass.htm http://omicron.ch.tuiasi.ro/EEMJ/pdfs/vol7/no5/22_Gavrilescu_M.pdf http://parkviewgardensvision.org/sites/default/files/files/PGNSDP_Final%20Repor t_03_SUSTAINABILITY%20APPROACH_2012-04-10.pdf