Loads

Structural Loads
Hibbeler, Sections 1.3, 1.4 (7th Ed.) Dead
Weight of structure itself & permanent fixtures Fixed magnitudes & position Generally known with high level of confidence

Live
Type, magnitude and position generally vary over time Less confidence about magnitudes, position and frequency of recurrence

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Dead Loads
Can be computed once estimates for sizes of structural elements are developed Mechanical loads also known (plumbing, A/C units, furnaces, etc.) Must also include other non-structural elements (interior partitions, ceiling, lighting, etc) Rough estimates for structural system (used to start analysis/design cycle)
Steel framed buildings: 60-75 lbf/f2 Reinforced concrete buildings: 110-130 lbf/f2

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Material Densities & Common Design Dead Loads

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Example: Dead Loads

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Live Loads
Occupancy loads for buildings Wind loads Snow & ice Loads Seismic loads Soil & water pressure Traffic loads on highway & railroad bridges

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Occupancy Loads

SEI/ASCE 7-02 Standard (American Society of Civil Engineers) Based on surveys of buildings & long history of successful designs Includes some protection for emergency overloads, construction loads, insures serviceability (deflectionsvibrations)

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Reduced Live Loads

Reduced lived loads are permitted for ordinary floor loads acting on large floor areas (not roofs, hallways, garages, etc.) Tributary area must be > 400 ft2 See Example 1-2 (ASCE 7-02)
L = Lo 0.25 +
Reduced live load: lbf / f 2

15 K LL AT

Tributary area, f 2 AT

Unreduced live load: lbf / f 2

Live load element factor: = 4 for interior column

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Wind Loads (1)

Kinetic energy of wind converted to potential energy of wind pressure forces that act on buildings Factors:
Density of air (varies with altitude, temperature) Velocity Angle of incidence between wind & building Shape & stiffness of structure

Simplified Design approach

Treated as static pressures applied normal to surfaces of structure Exceptions are tall buildings and long span bridges: require wind tunnel testing and aero-elastic analyses

Fundamental equation

q=

Force 1 = = mass density of air V = velocity Area 2

lbf f
2

) (

q = 0.00256V 2

miles per hour

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Wind Loads (2)

SEI/ASCE 7-02 guidelines for wind loading Starts with key energy balance equation and builds in complications for real structures:
Height of building surfaces above ground Gusts, turbulence Nearby terrain Effects of nearby buildings miles per hour
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qz = 0.00256 K z IV 2
Dimensionless structure importance factor: 0.87-1.15 lbf / f 2 Varies with height z above ground
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Dimensionless velocity pressure coefficient: varies with height above ground and nearby terrain features (0.85 1.09)

Wind Loads (3)

Velocities to use:
3 second wind gust measured 33 ft. above the ground 50-year recurrence interval ANSI/ASCE 7-02 has U.S. wind maps showing this data See map in text (Fig. 1-12, pg. 17) Chicago: V = 90 mph, qz = 20.7 lbf/f 2 (for Kz= 1, I = 1)
Velocity, V (mph) 70 80 90 100
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qz (Kz=I=1.0) 12.5 psf 16.4 psf 20.7 psf 25.6 psf

= 2560 lbf on a 10 x 10 wall panel (Ford Explr. weighs 4000 lbf.)

Wind Loads (4)

wind velocities

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Wind Loads (5)

Final design pressures

Includes a dimensionless gust factor (G): = 0.85 for a rigid structure Includes a dimensionless Cp pressure coefficient (positive on windward side and negative on leeward side). Also reflects the aspect ratios of the building. = 0.18 for fully enclosed bldgs Design pressure

p = qGC p qh ( GC pi )
= qz for windward side and varies with height Z above ground = qh on leeward sides, sloped roofs and ends (just = qz computed at mean height of surface) L, B, h, see next page

lbf f 2

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Example Wind Loads (1)

Building Outside Chicago On Flat Terrain

I = 0.87 (agricultural use) V = 90 mph qz = 18.04 Kz

= 0.00256IV 2

Windward Side: Load varies w/ height. See Table 1-5, pg. 18

Leeward Side and Roof: Load intensity computed at mean height

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General Set-Up

Example Wind Loads (2)

Loads on roof and leeward side are constant over areas

p = qGC p + qh ( GC pi )

p = qGC p qh ( GC pi )

Must analyze & design for worst case: positive and negative suction pressure

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Snow & Ice Loads (1)

Very significant in northern climates and/or at higher elevations SEI/ASCE 7-02 guidelines for snow & ice loading
Snow/ice treated as static roof loads Based on a ground snow cover to roof conversion Use 50 year recurrence interval General geographic maps provided to set ground snow cover but local conditions may vary widely

Key load equation

p f = 0.7Ce Ct Ipg
Load on an unobstructed flat roof (lbf/f 2)
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Site ground load (lbf/f 2)

Ce: dimensionless exposure factor (0.8-1.2) Ct: dimensionless thermal factor (1.0-1.2) I: dimensionless importance factor for structure (0.8-1.2)

Snow & Ice Loads (2)

For sloped roofs, the loading is further modified

ps = C s p f

Cs: dimensionless slope factor (0.0-1.0). Depends on slope and thermal factors. Typical value is 1.0.

Must also consider loaded vs. unloaded portions of roof, drifting and sliding snow, ice dam formation

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Loading Combinations: Buildings

Not all loads act on the structure simultaneously Some loads are known with more confidence than others (e.g. dead vs. wind) Building design codes (ACI, AISC, etc.) usually specify which combinations of loads must be considered and the uncertainty factors to use. Examples:
1.4 dead + 1.7 (occupancy+wind) 1.2 dead + 1.6 (occupancy+wind) + 0.5 snow 1.2 dead + 1.5 seismic + 0.5 (occupancy+wind)

Structure must be analyzed for all required combinations and each element designed to safely resist the maximum imposed forces

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Traffic Loads on Bridges

Dead load + traffic (cars & trucks) Traffic load is very complex (number, type of trucks, wheel spacing, weights, ) AASHTO simplified procedures (Am. Assoc. State Highway & Transp. Officials) Specifies sets of standard loads for which different bridges must be designed Loads vary with importance of bridge: an interstate bridge is not subject to the same traffic as a rural bridge crossing a creek

http://www.transportation.org/aashto/home.nsf/FrontPage Structural Loads 19

Traffic Loads on Bridges

Highway load sets composed of:
A uniform lane loading + a concentrated load placed to cause maximum moment and maximum shear Multiple truck loads placed to produce maximum moments and shears at each location on bridge Bridges are designed to specific loadings, e.g., HS20-44

http://www.transportation.org/aashto/home.nsf/FrontPage Structural Loads 20

Traffic Loads on Bridges (2)

These static loads are modified by an impact factor to approximate effects of dynamic loads (vehicles bouncing). Varies with span length and increases loads 30% max.

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