DSP ASSIGNMENT

1. SIGNALS AND THEIR TYPES Definition of Signal: Any time varying physical phenomenon that can convey information is called signal. Some examples of signals are human voice, electrocardiogram, sign language, videos etc. There are several classification of signals such as Continuous time signal, discrete time signal and digital signal, random signals and non-random signals.

Continuous-time Signal: A continuous-time signal is a signal that can be defined at every instant of time. A continuous-time signal contains values for all real numbers along the X-axis. It is denoted by x(t). Figure 1(a) shows continuous-time signal.

Discrete-time Signal: Signals that can be defined at discrete instant of time is called discrete time signal. Basically discrete time signals can be obtained by sampling a continuous-time signal. It is denoted as x(n).Figure 1(b) shows discrete-time signal. Digital Signal: The signals that are discrete in time and quantized in amplitude are called digital signal. The term "digital signal" applies to the transmission of a sequence of values of a discrete-time signal in the form of some digits in the encoded form. Periodic and A-periodic Signal: A signal is said to be periodic if it repeats itself after some amount of time x(t+T)=x(t), for some value of T. The period of the signal is the minimum value of time for which it exactly repeats itself.

Fig.2(a) Periodic signal

Fig.2(b) Aperiodic signal

Signal which does not repeat itself after a certain period of time is called aperiodic signal. The periodic and aperiodic signals are shown in Figure 2(a) and 2(b) respectively.

Random and Deterministic Signal: A random signal cannot be described by any mathematical function, where as a deterministic signal is one that can be described mathematically. A common example of random signal is noise. Random signal and deterministic signal are shown in the Figure 3(a) and 3(b) respectively.

Causal, Non-causal and Anti-causal Signal: Signal that are zero for all negative time, that type of signals are called causal signals, while the signals that are zero for all positive value of time are called anti-causal signal. A non-causal signal is one that has non zero values in both positive and negative time. Causal, non-causal and anti-causal signals are shown below in the Figure 4(a), 4(b) and 4(c) respectively.

Fig.4(a) Causal signal

Fig.4(b) Non-caual signal

Fig.4(c) Anti-causal signal

Even and Odd Signal: An even signal is any signal 'x' such that x(t) = x(-t). On the other hand, an odd signal is a signal 'x' for which x(t) = -x(-t). Even signals are symmetric around the vertical axis, so that they can easily spotted.

Fig.5(a) Odd signal

Fig.5(b) Even signal

An even signal is one that is invariant under the time scaling t - t and an odd signal is one that is invariant under the amplitude and time scaling x(t) - x(-t). A simple way of visualizing even and odd signal is to imazine that the ordinate [x(t)] axis is a mirror. For even signals, the part of x(t) for t > 0 and the part of x(t) for t < 0 are mirror images of each other. In case of an odd signal, the same two parts of the signals are negative mirror images of each other. Some signals are odd, some signals are even and some signals are neither odd nor even. But any signal x(t) can be expressed as a sum of its even and odd parts such asx(t) = xe(t) + xo(t) or we can say that every signal is composed of the addition of an even part and odd part. The even and odd parts of a signal x(t) are

and Here xe(t) denotes the even part of signal x(t) and xo(t) denotes the odd part signal x(t). Figure 5(a) and 5(b) shows the odd signal and even signal respectively. Real and Complex Exponential Signal:

of

Exponential signal is of two types. These two type of signals are real exponential signal and complex exponential signalwhich are given below. Real Exponential Signal: A real exponential signal is defined as

Where both "A" and "" are real. Depending on the value of "" the signals will be different. If "" is positive the signalx(t) is a growing exponential and if "" is negative then the signal x(t) is a decaying exponential. For =0, signal x(t) will be constant. Figure 10(a), 10(b) and 10(c) shows a dc signal, exponentially growing signal and exponentially decaying signal respectively.

Fig.10(a) A dc signal

Fig.10(b) Exponentially growing signal

Fig.10(c) Exponentially decaying signal

Complex exponential Signal: The complex exponential signal is given by

Where "s" is a complex variable and it is defined as

Therefore Using Eulers identity ...............................(2) Substituting eq .(2) in eq .(1) we have

n n

........................(1)

A complex exponential signal can not be plot in a two dimentional (2D) graph, it should be plot in a three dimentional graph. Figure given below shows the three dimentional view of a complex exponential signal. Real sines and real cosines can be expressed by the combinations of complex sinusoids through the trigonometric identities

and Complex exponential signal , out of phase complex exponential signal and the addition and substraction of complex exponentials to form the real cosine and real sine are shown in Figure 11(a), 11(b), 11(c) and 11(d) respectively.

Fig.11(a) Complex exponential signal exponential signal

Fig.11(b) Out of phase complex

Fig.11(c)Real cosine after addition substraction of complex sinusoids

of

complex

sinusoids Fig.11(d)

Real

sine

after

2. SAMPLE AND HOLD CIRCIUTS:

In electronics, a sample and hold (S/H, also "follow-and-hold") circuit is an analog device that samples (captures, grabs) the voltage of a continuously varying analog signal and holds (locks, freezes) its value at a constant level for a specified minimal period of time. Sample and hold circuits and related peak detectors are the elementary analog memory devices. They are typically used in analog-to-digital converters to eliminate variations in input signal that can corrupt the conversion process.

Sample and hold circuit using op-amp

As the name indicates , a sample and hold circuit is a circuit which samples an input signal and holds onto its last sampled value until the input is sampled again. Sample and hold circuits are commonly used in analogue to digital converts, communication circuits, PWM circuits etc. The circuit shown below is of a sample and hold circuit based on uA 741 opamp , n-channel E MOSFET BS170 and few passive components.

Description
As the name indicates , a sample and hold circuit is a circuit which samples an input signal and holds onto its last sampled value until the input is sampled again. Sample and hold circuits are commonly used in analogue to digital converts, communication circuits, PWM circuits etc. The circuit shown below is of a sample and hold circuit based on uA 741 opamp , n-channel E MOSFET BS170 and few passive components. In the circuit MOSFET BS170 (Q1) works as a switch while opamp uA741 is wired as a voltage follower. The signal to be sampled (Vin) is applied to the drain of MOSFET while the sample and hold control voltage (Vs) is applied to the source of the MOSFET. The source pin of the MOSFET is connected to the non inverting input of the opamp through the resistor R3. C1 which is a polyester capacitor serves as the charge storing device. Resistor R2 serves as the load resistor while preset R1 is used for adjusting the offset voltage. During the positive half cycle of the Vs, the MOSFET is ON which acts like a closed switch and the capacitor C1 is charged by the Vin and the same voltage (Vin) appears at the output of the opamp. When Vs is zero MOSFET is switched off and the only discharge path for C1 is through the inverting input of the opamp. Since the input impedance of the opamp is too high the voltage Vin is retained and it appears at the output of the opamp. The time periods of the Vs during which the voltage across the capacitor (Vc) is equal to Vin are called sample periods (Ts) and the time periods of Vs during which the voltage across the capacitor C1 (Vc) is held constant are called hold periods (Th). Taking a close look at the input and output wave forms of the circuit will make it easier to understand the working of the circuit.

Circuit diagram

Sample and Hold circuit using uA741 opamp

Input and output waveforms.

Input and output waveforms - Sample and hold circuit

3. NyquistShannon sampling theorem,

The NyquistShannon sampling theorem, after Harry Nyquist and Claude Shannon,[1] in the literature more commonly referred to as theNyquist sampling theorem or simply as the sampling theorem, is a fundamental result in the field of information theory, in particulartelecommunications and signal processing. Sampling is the process of converting a signal (for example, a function of continuous time or space) into a numeric sequence (a function of discrete time or space). Shannon's version of the theorem states:[2] If a function x(t) contains no frequencies higher than B hertz, it is completely determined by giving its ordinates at a series of points spaced 1/(2B) seconds apart. To formalize the statements above, let X(f) be the Fourier transform of bandlimited function x(t):

and

for all

When x(t) is sampled uniformly at intervals of T seconds, the resultant sequence is denoted by x(nT), for all integer values of n. And the sample-rate (samples per second) is:

Sampling Theorem and its Importance

Sampling Theorem: A bandlimited signal can be reconstructed exactly if it is sampled at a rate atleast twice the maximum frequency component in it." Figure 1 shows a signal g(t) that is bandlimited.

The maximum frequency component of g(t) is fm. To recover the signal g(t) exactly from its samples it has to be sampled at a rate fs 2fm.

The minimum required sampling rate fs = 2fm is called Nyquist rate.

 Aliasing
Aliasing is a phenomenon where the high frequency components of the sampled signal interfere with each other' because of inadequate sampling s < 2m. Aliasing leads to distortion in recovered signal. This is the reason why sampling frequency should be atleast twice the bandwidth of the signal.

4. SYSTEM AND THEIR TYPES:

system is a set of interacting or interdependent components forming an integrated whole[citation needed] or a set of elements (often called'components' ) and relationships which are different from relationships of the set or its elements to other elements or sets. Some systems share common characteristics, including:[citation needed] A system has structure, it contains parts (or components) that are directly or indirectly related to each other; A system has behavior, it contains processes that transform inputs into outputs (material, energy or data); A system has interconnectivity: the parts and processes are connected by structural and/or behavioral relationships. A system's structure and behavior may be decomposed via subsystems and sub-processes to elementary parts and process steps.

The term system may also refer to a set of rules that governs structure and/or behavior. Alternatively, and usually in the context of complex social systems, the term institution is used to describe the set of rules that govern structure and/or behavior.

Elements of a system:
Following are considered as the elements of a system in terms of Information systems: 1. 2. 3. Inputs and outputs Processor Control

4. 5. 6.

Environment Feedback Boundaries and interface

Types of systems
Systems are classified in different ways: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Physical or abstract systems. Open or closed systems. 'Man-made' information systems. Formal information systems. Informal information systems. Computer-based information systems. Real-time system.

Types of System : 1. Physical or Abstract : Physical system is tangible entities that may be static or dynamic in nature. Abstract system is conceptual or non-physical. The abstract is conceptualization of physical situations. 2. Open and Closed : An open system continually interacts with its environment. It receives input from the outside and delivers output to outside. A closed system is isolated from environment influences. 3. Sub System and Super System : Each system is part of a large system. The business firm is viewed as the system or total system when focus is on production, distribution of goal and sources of profit and income. The total system consists of all the objects, attributes and relationship necessary to accomplish an objective given a number of constraints. Sub systems are the smaller systems within a system. Super system denotes extremely large and complex system 4. Permanent and Temporary System : A permanent system is a system enduring for a time span that is long relative to the operation of human. Temporary system is one having a short time span. 5. Natural and Man Made System : System which is made by man is called man made system. Systems which are in the environment made by nature are called natural system. 6. Deterministic and Probabilistic : A Deterministic system is one in which the occurrence of all events is perfectly predictable. If we get the

description of the system state at a particular time, the next state can be easily predicted. Probabilistic system is one in which the occurrence of events cannot be perfectly predicted. 7. Man-made information System : It is generally believed that the information reduces uncertainty about a state or event. An information system is the basis for interaction between the user and the analyst. It determines the nature of relationship among decision makers. An information system may be defined as a set of devices, procedures andOperating System designed around user-base criteria to produce information and communicating it to the user for planning control and performance. 8. Formal Information System:
A formal information system is based on the organisation represented by the organization chart. The chart is a map of position and their authority relationship,indicated by boxes and connected by straight lines. it is concerned with the pattern of authority, communication and work flow.

9. Informal Information System:

The informal information system is employee based system design to meet personnel and vocational needs and to help in the solution of work-related problems. it also funnels information upward through indirect channels. In this way, it is considered to be a useful system because it works within the framework of the business and its stated policies.

10. Real Time Systems:

Real-Time systems span several domains of computer science. They are defense and space systems, networked multimedia systems, embedded auto-motive electronics etc. In a real-time system the correctness of the system behavior depends not only the logical results of the computations, but also on the physical instant at which these results are produced. A real-time system changes its state as a function of physical time

11. Computer-based Information Systems:

A computer-based information system (CBIS) is an information system in which the computer plays a major role. Such a system consists of the following elements: Hardware: The term hardware refers to machinery. This category includes the computer itself, which is often referred to as the central processing unit (CPU), and all of its support equipments. Among the support equipments are input and output devices, storage devices and communications devices. Software: The term software refers to computer programs and the manuals (if any) that support them. Computer programs are machine-readable instructions that direct the circuitry within the hardware parts of the CBIS to function in ways that produce useful information from data. Programs are generally stored on some input / output mediumoften a disk or tape. Data: Data are facts that are used by program to produce useful information. Like programs, data are generally stored in machine-readable from on disk or tape until the computer needs them. Procedures: procedures are the policies that govern the operation of a computer system. "Procedures are to people what software is to hardware" is a common analogy that is used to illustrate the role of procedures in a CBIS. People: Every CBIS needs people if it is to be useful. Often the most over-looked element of the CBIS is the people: probably the components that most influence the success or failure of information system.