Vehicle Responses to Cornering

From a control point of view, cornering is the most demanding and interesting for analysis. analysis
Note: In vehicle dynamics terminology, cornering or turning of the vehicle is referred to as yaw or yawing of the vehicle.
1

The Wheel while Cornering

The Slip Angle is measured from the p g Center line of the Tire (in the traveling direction) to the Direction of the Cornering Force.

Cornering Very Slow

CofG
Vehicle C/L

Inst. Dir Inst Dir. Travel

Vehicle path - no slip angles at the tires - Instantaneous direction of travel is at right angles to turn radius, R. - is the attitude angle Car is pointing out from the turn.

Instantaneous Turn Centre

www.racing-car-technology.com.au

Cornering Neutral Steer

Vehicle C/L

CofG

R
- Dir. of Travel and R stay. - The lateral force forces slip p angles, , front and rear. - The vehicle rotates in the direction of the turn. - The car is now pointing into the corner. Instantaneous Turn Centre
www.racing-car-technology.com.au

Inst. Dir. Travel

Vehicle path The neutral vehicle maintains the intended path

Cornering Oversteer
Vehicle C/L

CofG

R
- Slip angles increase at the rear, faster than the front - The car rotates further in the direction of the turn, increasing the attitude angle, . - The turn radius, R is shorten.

Inst. Dir. Travel

Intended Vehicle Path

Oversteer O t Vehicle Path Instantaneous Turn Centre

Note: The rear tyres are not sliding
www.racing-car-technology.com.au 5

Cornering Understeer
Vehicle C/L

CofG

Understeer Vehicle Path

Inst. Dir. Travel

- Slip angles increase at the front, faster than the rear - the car rotates out of the turn, reducing the attitude angle. - Turn radius, R is lengthened Intended Vehicle path

Instantaneous Turn Centre Note: The front tyres

are not sliding
www.racing-car-technology.com.au 6

Lateral Forces and US or OS

b a Moments around the CG - Balanced (neutral) CG Attitude Angle FR
For neutral steer, For oversteer, For understeer,

Front

- Net rotational force around the CG (cause US or OS).

FF
FF x a = FR x b, i.e. the rotational forces are balanced. FF x a > FR x b, i.e. decreasing relative rear grip, increasing attitude angle. FF x a < FR x b, i.e. decreasing relative front grip, decreasing attitude angle.

www.racing-car-technology.com.au

Slip Angle vs Lateral Load

Goodyear Eagle 215-60-15

For a given Fz of 1800lbs. Maximum grip is at 6 deg slip angle.

Cornering Stiffness, C , is the initial slope of the curve.

RCVD, Milliken and Milliken, p25
8

Lateral Force Vs Slip Angle (as Fz varied)

Max grip, shown for each vertical load. Fy = Fz

Notice the change of the Max-Lateral Force vs. The Vertical Load !!!
9

Lateral Force vs. Vertical Load

Statics Weight Dist. 400 kg Lat. Force: 560*2 = 1120 kg g (1.4g Cornering Capacity)

At 80% Lateral Load Transfer: Outboard: Inboard: 720 80 kg kg kg k kg kg

Lat. F L t Force (OB) 936 Lat. Force (IB) 120

Total Lat. Force 1056

(1.32g Cornering Capacity)

10

Control Front vs. Rear Balance

Balance Limits Grip: axle-pair of tires that reach the top of the curve first (the tires are saturated), limit the other pair.

Lateral force

Lateral force

Rear Tires Front Tires

Rear Tires Front Tires

Lateral force

Rear Tires Front Tires

Slip angle Neutral Steer

Slip angle UnderSteer (US)

Slip angle OverSteer (OS)

The sketches show the car neutral in the linear range for all three examples. This is true for small slip angles. In reality, most cars will start to build US or OS well inside the linear range.

11

Oversteer and Understeer Control/Optimization

Maximising grip at all four tires (Tire selections temps, pressures, cambers toe etc) selections, temps pressures cambers, Because of the transient nature of handling, maximise overall grip with attention to spring frequency - springs, ARBs and shocks controlling ride, roll pitch rate are also important. Balancing the car for oversteer/understeer must also not be overlooked. Ideally we look to stick the loose end so as to increase overall grip.

www.racing-car-technology.com.au

12

Tuning for Grip and Balance

A set of tires and a competent driver are given. given Factors determine the performance:
Tires traction (Choices!!) Dynamic loading of the tires (Design!!)

Design Variables: g
Track width & CG Height (Difficult to change) Roll Center Height (Difficult to adjust, but crucial) Roll Stiffness (Springs, ARB, Dampers)
13

Track Width, CG, and RC

For Left Turn: - Tire forces acting at the ground level - Accelerate through the Center of Turn (Centripetal) - Resisting inertial force is created (Centrifugal) - Overturning moment causes the weight transfer
14

Track Width, CG, and RC

Equivalent Forces System at the RC: - FR and FL are created by the cornering forces at the right and left tires - FI and MI represent the roll moment - Distance of RC-CG affects the magnitude of MI - The higher RC, the lesser MI (vice versa) - BUT....Overall weight transfer characteristic is not altered!
15

Track Width, CG, and RC

Equivalent Forces System at the RC: - FT is the summation of FR and FL - FH and FV represent axial components of FT - FH accelerates the vehicle toward the turn - FV represent a Jacking Force lifting the vehicle during the turn! - The higher the CG, the larger the FV
16

Track Width, CG, and RC

Most Designer: Low RC just above the ground Commonly used: 2 inches for Front 3 6 inches for Rear (??) Suspension Designer spends a lot of time keeping RC unchanged in any condition (Roll Stability)

17

Simple Roll Stiffness (Lateral Weight Transfer)

In cornering total lateral weight cornering, transfer is a function of - the cornering force - vehicle mass - CG height - the track measurement
The roll stiffness or weight transfer concept is sometimes called roll moment distribution in the t t b k th text books.

But by changing the proportion of roll stiffness, front vs. rear, this total weight transfer can be manipulated between the front and the rear of the car. The lateral grip at each end of the car is then varied, thus influencing attitude angle change, as per the previous slides.
18

Total Weight Transfer Calculation

The Total Weight Transfer is calculated as follows: Lateral Force Lateral Weight Transfer = Vehicle Mass*Lateral Acceleration = Lateral Force*CG Height/Track

The lateral force is reacted by the tires. The faster car, for a given lateral force potential, will have lower centre of gravity (CG) and a wider track.

19

Total Weight Transfer Calculation

The Total Weight Transfer is calculated as follows: Lateral Force Lateral Weight Transfer = Vehicle Mass*Lateral Acceleration = Lateral Force*CG Height/Track

The lateral force is reacted by the tires. Forces for the suspended mass and non suspended mass together equal the force at the CG.

20

10

Total Weight Transfer Calculation

Total Weight Transfer is the sum of three very important components: Non Suspended Weight Transfer : Due to the component of lateral force applied by the weight of the wheels wheels, uprights, brakes etc. We take the axle height as a close approximation to the center of mass, or centre of gravity, (CG), for the non suspended mass. And two components of Suspended Weight Transfer: Geometric Weight Transfer : Due to the component of lateral force, applied directly at the Roll Centre ( C) Geo et c (RC). Geometric WT is reacted d ect y t oug t e suspe s o linkages, a d s eacted directly through the suspension ages, and does not induce body roll. Elastic Weight Transfer : Due to the component of lateral force, applied at the Suspended Mass CG, and does induce body roll. This force is reacted in the springs, anti-roll bars and shocks, and is the only one of the three components of total weight transfer that does induce body roll.
21

Total Weight Transfer Calculation

22

11

Roll Resistance
Weight transfer exist in any case The amount of roll depending on the spring and/or ARB stiffness The stiffer the spring, the lesser degree of roll Now what happen when you have
Equally stiff front and rear springs? Stiffer front spring than the rear? Stiffer rear spring than the front?
23

Roll Resistance
Equally stiff springs:
Vehicle t i the V hi l entering th corner Weight transfer starts Body rolls due to moment by some degree depending on the moment magnitude Assuming that the RC front and rear are the same, same the amount of weight transfer for front and rear are the same. What happen if we change the spring stiffness? (Modification?)
24

12

Roll Resistance
Stiffer front spring:
1, 2 1 2, B d rolls Body ll Stiffer front spring creates force oppose to the roll force fast ! (not the rate but the motion...and reduces
the degree of roll

The reduction of the degree of roll decreases the g ( , weight transfer at the rear end (roll lesser amount,
lesser force opposes to the roll force, lesser weight transfer)

Increasing of the weight transfer reduces grip! Less grip at the front, Good grip at the rear Understeer
25

Roll Resistance
Stiffer rear spring:
1, 2 1 2, B d rolls Body ll Stiffer rear stop the rear end roll faster (againnot the rate, but the motion) with a high magnitude of weight transfer Increasing of the weight transfer reduces grip! Less grip at the rear Good grip at the front rear, Oversteer

26

13

Roll Resistance
Come back to the Equally stiff springs:
What happen if we change th spring Wh t h h the i stiffness? (Modification?) Adjusting the spring stiffness for both front and rear would not adjust the grip balance . Useless (in other words)

27

Roll Resistance
What about the Damper?
Velocity V l it sensitive d i iti device Its effects can be felt during transient period e.g. cornering entry or exist (while adjusting the roll resistance by the spring and ARB has more effects on mid-corner) Damper determine how quickly the roll occurs Adjusting the damper is normally done at the advance level of modifications. (Dynamic Roll Stiffness Adjustment)
28

14

Roll Resistance

Time Sequence of Cornering Forces and Roll

29

Tuning for Grip and Balance

Static Roll Resistance: The most basic set-up
RC ( (normally diffi lt) ll difficult) Spring and ARB To satisfy the Ride Height and Roll Resistance Req.

Dynamic Roll Adjustment:

RC (normally difficult) Dampers To satisfy transient performance during cornering entry (roll) and exist (deroll)
30

15

Static Roll Stiffness

Spring Rate and Wheel Rate
Kw = R2Ks R = a/b

Heavy Car : Stiff Spring (for a good ride height) or Soft Spring with a larger motion ratio + Damping Adjustment
31

Static Roll Stiffness

Spring Rate and Wheel Rate

Bellcrank Suspension

Kw = R2Ks R = r3/r1
32

16

Static Roll Stiffness

Starting Point of the Spring and ARB
Wheel Rate/Static W i ht Wh l R t /St ti Weight
0.7:1 for normal road 1 1.3 for Small Size Open Wheeler & Stock Race 1.6 - 2.4 for Open Wheeler 1.6 : Formula 2000, 1.9 : Formula Atlantic, 2.3 : CART

Knowing the motion ratio the spring rate can be ratio, selected For Road: Front 10% - 15% Softer for Flat Ride For Race: Front 5% - 20% Stiffer for Control ARB is to add 10% - 20% to the roll stiffness
33

Dynamic Roll Stiffness

Corner-Entry
Oversteer O t
Increase bump on front/ decrease rebound at rear More bump front -> more weight transfer -> less grip

Corner-Exit
Oversteer
Decrease rebound on front/ decrease bump at rear Less rebound front -> more weight transfer -> less grip

34

17

Example for Tuning

Front:
Track RC Spring USpW Tire R = 60 in = 2 in = 500 lb/in = 100 lb = 26 in = 60 in = 4 in = 400 lb/in = 200 lb = 26 in = 100 in = 16 in = 2000 lb

Front
500 lb 500 lb

Rear:
Track RC Spring USpW Tire R

500 lb

500 lb

Overall:
Wheel Base CG Total Weight

Curve Weight Goal: Balanced Car with One Degree Roll at 1.2 G
35

Example for Tuning

Front:
Track RC Spring USpW Tire R = 60 in = 2 in = 500 lb/in = 100 lb = 26 in = 60 in = 4 in = 400 lb/in = 200 lb = 26 in = 100 in = 16 in = 2000 lb

Front
181 lb 819 lb

49.8% 49 8%

Rear:
Track RC Spring USpW Tire R

0.98 Degree Roll

179 lb

50.2%

821 lb

Overall:
Wheel Base CG Total Weight

1.2 G Cornering

36

18

Example for Tuning

Front:
Track RC Spring USpW Tire R = 60 in = 2 in = 400 lb/in (500) = 100 lb = 26 in = 60 in = 4 in = 300 lb/in (400) = 200 lb = 26 in = 100 in = 16 in = 2000 lb

Front
174 lb 826 lb

50.9% 50 9%

Rear:
Track RC Spring USpW Tire R

1.26 Degree Roll

186 lb

49.1%

814 lb

Overall:
Wheel Base CG Total Weight

1.2 G Cornering Changing Spring to Add ARB

37

Example for Tuning

Front:
Track RC Spring USpW Tire R = 60 in = 2 in = 200 lb/in (500) = 100 lb = 26 in = 60 in = 4 in = 150 lb/in (400) = 200 lb = 26 in = 100 in = 16 in = 2000 lb

Front
161 lb 839 lb

53.0% 53 0%

Rear:
Track RC Spring USpW Tire R

1.76 Degree Roll

199 lb

47.0%

801 lb

Overall:
Wheel Base CG Total Weight

1.2 G Cornering Changing Spring to Add ARB

38

19

Example for Tuning

Front:
Track RC Spring USpW Tire R = 60 in = 2 in = 200 lb/in (500) + ARB of 100 lb/in = 100 lb = 26 in = 60 in = 4 in = 150 lb/in (400) = 200 lb = 26 in = 100 in = 16 in = 2000 lb

Front
102 lb 898 lb

62.2% 62 2%

Rear:
Track RC Spring USpW Tire R

1.60 Degree Roll

258 lb

37.8%

742 lb

Overall:
Wheel Base CG Total Weight

1.2 G Cornering Adding F-ARB of 100lb/in

39

Example for Tuning

Front:
Track RC Spring USpW Tire R = 60 in = 2 in = 200 lb/in (500) + ARB of 100 lb/in = 100 lb = 26 in = 60 in = 4 in = 150 lb/in (400) + ARB of 100 lb/in = 200 lb = 26 in = 100 in = 16 in = 2000 lb

Front
192 lb 808 lb

62.2% 62 2%

Rear:
Track RC Spring USpW Tire R

1.18 Degree Roll

168 lb

37.8%

832 lb

Overall:
Wheel Base CG Total Weight

1.2 G Cornering Adding R-ARB of 100lb/in

40

20

Example for Tuning

Front:
Track RC Spring USpW Tire R = 60 in = 2 in = 200 lb/in (500) + ARB of 200 lb/in = 100 lb = 26 in = 60 in = 4 in = 150 lb/in (400) + ARB of 100 lb/in = 200 lb = 26 in = 100 in = 16 in = 2000 lb

Front
146 lb 854 lb

55.3% 55 3%

Rear:
Track RC Spring USpW Tire R

0.93 Degree Roll

214 lb

44.7%

786 lb

Overall:
Wheel Base CG Total Weight

1.2 G Cornering Adding F-ARB of another 100lb/in

41

Example for Tuning

Front:
Track RC Spring USpW Tire R = 60 in = 2 in = 200 lb/in (500) + ARB of 200 lb/in = 100 lb = 26 in = 60 in = 10 in (4) = 150 lb/in (400) = 200 lb = 26 in = 100 in = 16 in = 2000 lb

Front
145 lb 855 lb

55.4% 55 4%

Rear:
Track RC Spring USpW Tire R

0.93 Degree Roll

215 lb

44.6%

785 lb

Overall:
Wheel Base CG Total Weight

1.2 G Cornering Raising R-RC to 10 in

42

21

Total Weight Transfer Calculation

Performance Set-Up The indication of the oversteer/understeer balance of the car. If the front "Distrib of Total Weight Transfer is the same as the static front weight percentage, the car is neutral. The front "Distrib of Total Weight Transfer that is lower than neutral moves the car in the direction of oversteer. For both road car and race car set ups, we use an approximation of 3% - 5% higher than static front weight percentage - ie in the direction of understeer.

43

What do the racers do?

Wedging (Diagonal Weight Transfer Adj)

44

22