UNIT I MATHEMATICAL TOOLS 1.

1 Basic Mathematics for Physics

Mathematics is the TOOL of Physics. A good knowledge and applications of fundamentals of mathematics (which are used in physics) helps in understanding the physical phenomena and their applications. The topics introduced in this chapter enable us to understand topics of first year pre university physics. I. Quadratic Equation and its Solution A second degree equation is called quadratic equation. The equation, ax2 + bx + c = 0 is a quadratic equation, In this equation, a, b and c are constants and x is a variable quantity. The solution of the quadratic equation is

x=

b b 2 4ac 2a

Illustration: Comparing the given quadratic equation x2 5x + 6 = 0 with the standard form of quadratic equation a x2 +b x + c = 0 We have a = 1, b = -5, c = 6 Now, we know x =

(5) (5) 2 4 1 6 b b 2 4ac x = 2a 2 1

5 25 24 5 1 = 2 2 6 4 x = or 2 2 x = 3 or x = 2 =
Exercise 1.1: Solve for x comparing with the standard equation 1. x2 9x + 14 = 0 2. 2x2 + 5x 12 = 0

3. 3x2 + 8x + 5 = 0 4. 4x2 4ax + (a2 b2) = 0

II. Binomial Theorem

According to this theorem, (1 + x) n = 1 + nx +

n(n 1) 2 n(n 2) 3 x + x + ....... 2! 3!

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Where | x \ < 1, n is any negative integer or any fraction (positive or negative) The total number of terms = n + 1 i.e. one more than the index of the power of the Binomial. 2! = 2 x 1, 3! = 3 x 2 x 1 and n! = n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3)..........1 If |x| < <1, then the terms containing higher power of x can be neglected. Therefore (1+x)n = 1 + nx.

Binomial theorem for positive integral index

( x + a)n = x n + nx n 1a n( n 1) x n 1 2 + a + ..... + a n 1! 2!

where n is any positive integer.

Example 1: Expand (1+x)-2 Solution: (1+x)-2 = 1 + (2) x +

(2)(2 1) 2 (2)(2 1)(2 2) 3 x + x + ..... 2! 3!

= 1 2x +

6 2 24 3 x x + ..... 2! 3!

= 1 2 x + 3 x 2 4 x 3 + .....

Example 2: Evaluate

37 correct up to three decimal places.

1/2

Solution:

1 37 = (36 + 1)1/2 = (36)1/ 2 1 + 36

= 5(1 + 0.028)1/ 2

1 1 1 1 3 1 2 2 2 2 2 (0.028) 2 + (0.028)3 + ...... = 5 1 + (0.028) + 2! 3! 2

We have neglected the terms containing powers of 0.028. 37 = 6 [1 + 0.014]

= 6 [1 + 0.014] = 6 [1.014] = 6.084

Exercise: 1. The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) at a height h above the surface of earth is

g =

gR 2 1 - 2h If h<<R, then prove that g = g 2 ( R + h) R

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 2 2 gR h = g 1+ Hint: g = 2 h 2 R R 1 + R
2. Solve (1 + x)3 using Binomial theorem. III. Logarithms

If ax = m, then x is called the logarithm of m to the base a and is written as loga m Thus, if ax = m, then loga m = x
For example (i) If 24 = 16 log2 16=4

(ii) 33 = 27 log3 27=3 (iv) loga a = 1.

(iii)loga 1=0
Standard Formulae of logarithms

1. loge mn = loge m + loge n 2. loge

Two Systems of Logarithms

m = loge m - logen n

3. loge mn = n loge m

1. Natural Logarithm. Logarithm of a number to the base e (e = 2.7182) is called natural

logarithm.
2. Common Logarithm. Logarithm of a number to the base 10 is called common logarithm. In all

practical calculations, we always use common logarithm.

Conversion of Natural logarithm to Common logarithm

Natural logarithms can be converted into common logarithms as follows: loge N = 2.3026 log10 N 2.303 log10 N

Example:

Work done during an isothermal process is W = RT log e This can be written as W = 2.3026 RT log10

V2 V1

V2 V 2.0303 RT log10 2 V1 V1

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Example: Expand the following using logarithm formulae

(i) f =

1 2l

T m

Solution:

1 T f = 2l m

1/2

Taking log both sides, we get log f = log T1/2 log m1/2 (log 2 + log l) 1 1 1 = log T log m (log 2 + log l ) = (log T log m) log 2 log l. 2 2 2
Exercise Expand the following by using logarithm formulae

(i) PV = K

(ii) V =

Pr 4 8l

(iii) h =

2T rpg

(iv) T = 2

l g

IV. Trigonometry
Angle: Consider a fixed straight line OX. Let another straight line OA (called revolving line) be

coinciding with OX rotate anticlockwise and takes the position OA, The angle is measured by the amount of revolution that the revolving line OA undergoes in passing from its initial position to final position. From Figure given below, angle covered by revolving line OA is
= AOX. A

0 X

An angle AOX is +ve, if it is traced out in anticlockwise direction and AOX is ve, if it is traced out in clockwise direction

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System of Measurement of an Angle

(i) Sexagesimal System

(i) Sexagesimal System: In this system

(ii) circular system

1 right angle = 90O (degrees) 1 degree = 60 (minutes) 1 minute = 60 (seconds)

(ii) In circular system :
Radians = 180 = 2 right angles
O

1right. Angle =

radians.

Let a particle moves from initial position A to the final position B along a circle of radius r as shown in figure.
B

Lenght of arc AB Then, Angle, = Radius of circle (r )

If length of arc AB = radius of the circle (r) Then = 1 radian

Radian: An angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc whose length is equal to the radius of the circle is called one radian. Relation between Radian and Degree When a body or a particle completes one rotation, then = 360 and distance travelled (circumference of a circle). 2r = r

Or

360O = 2 radian
360 180 = 7 1 rad = 2 22 = 57.27O

Or

Thus,

1 radian = 57.27O

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Trigonometric Ratios

Consider triangle ONM in the four quadrants as shown below. Consider two straight lines X'OX and Y'OY meeting at right angles in O. These two lines divide the plane into four equal parts called quadrants (figure given below).

Now XOY, YOX', X'OY' and Y'OX are called I, II, III, and IV quadrants respectively. ON is +ve if drawn to the right side of O and ve if drawn to the left side of O. MN is +ve if drawn above X'OX and
ve if drawn below X'OX,
Trigonometric Ratios of an Angle

1.

MN = sin (i.e. sine of ) OM MN = tan (i.e. tangent of ) ON OM = sec (i.e. secant of ) ON

2.

ON = cos (i.e. cosine of ) OM OM = cosec (i.e. cosecant of ) MN OM = cos (i.e. cotangent of ) MN

3.

4.

5.

6.

These ratios are called trigonometric ratios.

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Important relations:

1. cosec =

1 sin

2. sec =

1 cos

3. cot =

1 tan

4. sin2 +cos2 = 1

5. sec2 = 1 + tan2

6. cosec2 = 1 + cot2

Signs of trigonometric ratios

The signs of various trigonometric ratios can be remembered from the above figure.

Trigonometric Ratios of Standard angles

The trigonometric ratios of standard angles are given in the following table:
Angle trig-ratio 0O 30O 45O
1 2
1 2

60O

90O

120O

180O

sin

1 2

3 2
1 2
3

3 2

cos

3 2
1 3

1 2

tan

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Trigonometrical Ratios of Allied Angles

1. (i) sin () = sin 2. (i) sin (90 ) = cos

O

(ii) cos () = cos (ii) cos (90 ) = sin

O

(iii) tan () = tan (iii) tan (90O) = cot (iii) tan (90O+) = cot

3. (i) sin (90O+) = cos 4. (i) sin (180O) = sin 5. (i) sin (180O+) = sin

(ii) cos (90O+) = sin

(ii) cos (180O) = cos (iii) tan (180O) = tan (ii) cos (180O+) = cos (iii) tan (180O+) = tan (iii) tan (270O) = cot (iii) tan (270O+) = cot

6. (i) sin (270O) = cos (ii) cos (270O) = sin 7. (i) sin (270O+) = cos (ii) cos (270O+) = sin
Illustrations: Find the values of

(i) sin 270O

Solution:

(ii) sin 120O

(iii) sin 120O (iv) tan (-30O)

(i) sin 270O = sin (180O + 90O) = sin 90O = 1 (ii) cos 120O = cos (90O + 30O) = sin 30O = 1 2

(iii) sin 120O = sin (90O + 30O) = cos 30O = (iv) tan (30O) = tan 30O =
1 3

3 2

Some important Trigonometric Formulae

1. sin (A+B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B 3. sin (AB) = sin A cos B cos A sin B 5. sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A 7. cos (A+B) cos (AB) = cos2 A sin2 B A+ B A B cos 2 2

2. cos (A+B) = cos A cos B sin A sin B 4. cos (AB) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B 6. sin (A+B) sin (AB) = sin2 A sin2 B 8. tan (A+B) = tan A + tan B 1 tan A tan B A B A+ B sin 2 2

9. sin A + sin B = 2 sin

10. sin Asin B=2 cos

11. cos A + cos B = 2 cos

A B A B A+ B A+ B 12. cos A-cos B=2 sin sin cos 2 2 2 2

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13. cos 2 A = 1 2 sin2 A = 2 cos2 A 1 tan A tan B 1 + tan A tan B

14. tan 2 A =

2 tan A 1 tan 2 A

15. tan (AB) =

16. tan (A+B) =

tan A + tan B 1 tan A tan B

V. Differentiation Function: If the value of a quantity y (say) depends on the value of another quantity x, then y is the function of x i.e. y = f(x).

The quantity y is called dependent variable and the quantity x is called independent variable. For example, y = 2x2 + 4x + 7 is a function of x (i) When x = 1, y = 2(1)2 + 4x1+7 = 13 (ii) When x = 2, y = 2(2)2 +4x2+7 = 23 As the value of y depends on the value of x, y is the function of x.
Differential coefficient or derivative of a function

Let y = f(x) That is, the value of y depends upon the value of x.

. (1)

Let x be a small increment in x, so that y is the corresponding small increment in y, then y + y = f(x+x) Subtract (1) from (2), we get y = f(x+x) f(x) Divide both sides by x y f ( x + x) f ( x) = x x Where y is called average rate of change of y w.r.t. x. x . (2)

Let us x be as small as possible i.e. x0 (read as delta x tends to zero) Then differential coefficient or derivative of y w.r.t. x is f ( x + x ) f ( x ) dy = Lt x 0 x dx

Theorems of Differentiations

1. If y = C, when C is constant

dy =0 dx dy = nx n 1 dx
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2. If y = xn, where n is an integer

3. If y = Cu, where u is the function of x and C is constant

dy du =C dx dx

4. If y = u v , where u, v and are the function of x dy d d d = (u ) (v ) ( ) ....... dx dx dx dx dy dv du =u + dx dx dx

u dv du v dx dx 2 u

5. If y = u v, where u and v are the function of x, then

v dy 6. If y = , where u and v are the function of x, then = dx u 7. If y = un, where u is the function of x then
Exercise 1.2 1, Find derivative of the functions w.r.t x x5 5 (i) 4x3+7x2+6x+9 (ii) 2 2 x

dy du = nu n 1 dx dx

(iii)

(iv)

1 x+4

Differential coefficients of Trigonometric Functions

1.

d d d (u ) (sin x) = cos x; and (sin u) = cos u , u is the function of x dx dx dx d d d (cos x) = six x ; (cos u) = sin u (u ) dx dx dx d d d (tan x) = sec2 x ; (tan u) = sec2 u (u) dx dx dx d (cot x) = cosec2 x dx d (sec x) = sec x tan x dx d (cosec x) = cosec x cot x. dx

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Example: Differentiate the following w.r.t. x. (i) sin 2 x Solution: (ii) x sin x

(i)

Let y = sin 2x
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 (ii)

dy d d = (sin 2 x) = cos 2 x (2 x) = cos 2 x.2 = 2 cos 2 x dx dx dx

Let y = x sin x dy d d d = ( x sin x) = x (sin x) + sin x ( x) = x cos x + sin x.1 dx dx dx dx dy = x cos x + sin x dx

Exercise 1.3

(i) sin 3x (iii) tan 4x (v) cos (ax + b)

(ii) cos 3x (iv) sin (ax + b)

Differential Coefficients of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

1.

d 1 1 (log e x) = log e e = ( (Q log e e = 1) dx x x d u d (e ) = eu (u ) dx dx d u d (e ) = eu (u ) dx dx

2.

d 1 d (log e u ) = (u ) dx u dx d x (e ) = e x log e e = e x dx

3.

4.

5.

Example: 1. Differentiate the follow w.r.t .x. (i) (log e x ) 2 Solution: (ii) log(ax + b)

(i)

Let y = (log e x) 2
dy d d 1 2 = (log x) 2 = 2 log x (log x) = 2 log x. = log x dx dx dx x x

(ii)

Let y = log(ax + b)

dy d 1 d a = log(ax + b) = (ax + b) = dx dx ax + b (ax + b) dx

Example 3: If S = 2t 3 3t 2 + 2, find the position, velocity and acceleration of a particle at the end of 2s. S is measured in metre and t in second.
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Solution:

S = 2t 3 3t 2 + 2,
When t = 2s, S = 2 8 3 4 + 2 = 6 m Now, velocity v = dS d = (2t 3 3t 2 + 2) = 6t 2 6t dt dt

When t 2s, v = 6 4 6 2 = 12ms 1 Now, acceleration, a = dv d = (6r 2 6t ) = 12t 6 dt dt

When t = 2s, a = 12 2 6 = 18ms 2

Exercise 1.4
1. The area of a blot of ink is growing such that after t second A = 3r 2 + increase of area after 5 s. 2. If the motion of a particle is represented by S = t 3 + t 2 t + 2 , find the position, velocity and acceleration of the particle after 2 s. 3. A particle starts rotating from rest and its angular displacement is given by = the angular velocity at the end of 10 s.
t2 t + Calculate 40 5

t + 7 Calculate the rate of 5

VI. Integration
Integration is an inverse process of differentiation. It is the process of finding the function whose derivative is given. Suppose F(x) is the derivative of the function f(x) w.r.t.x. Then we can write d f ( x) = F ( x) dx Now, if we are given the derivative F(x) and we have to find the function f(x) then this can be done with the help of Integral Calculus. The process of finding the function whose derivative is given is called integration.
Definition: If the derivative of a function f(x) is F(x) then f(x) is called the integral of F(x) with respect to x. The integration of a function can be written as F ( x) dx = f ( x)

The function F(x) whose integral is f(x) is called Integrand.

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Fundamental Formulae of Integration

1.

d dx = x Q dx (x) = 1

2.

n x dx =

x n +1 provided n 1. n +1

3.

dx =

1 dx = log e x x
e ax = e ax a

4. e x dx = e x 6.
x a dx =

5. e ax dx =

d ( ax ) dx

ax log e a
cos ax cos ax = d a ( ax) dx

7. sin xdx = cos x

7a. sin axdx =

8. cos xdx = sin x 9. sec 2 xdx = tan x 11. sec x tan x dx = sec x 13.

8a.

cos axdx =

sin ax a

10. cos ec 2 x dx = cot x 12. cos ecx cot x dx = cos ecx

tan x dx = cos x dx =

sin x

sin x dx = log e cos x cos x

14. cot x dx = 15.

cos x dx = log e sin x sin x

16.

dx 1 x
2

= sin 1 x; | x |< 1

dx x 1
2

= sec 1 | x |; | x | > 1

17.

1+ x

dx

= tan 1 x

Theorems of Integration First Theorem: The integral of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the product

of the constant and integral of the function.

i.e.

c u d x = c u d x ,

where c is constant.

Second Theorem: The integral of the sum or difference of a number of functions is given by

(u v ........) dx = ud x v d x d x .........
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Exercise 1.5 Integrate the following functions w.r.t .x, (i) x3 (ii) x 2 +

1 x

(iii) e3x

1 (iv) x x

(v)

1 x

(vi) 4e5x

Definite integral If F ( x)dx = f ( x) + c

Then

F ( x)dx = f (b) f (a)

a

Where a and b are called the upper and lower limits of x Definite integral is illustrated with the following examples.

Exercise 1.6 Solve the following:

GMm dx (i) x2 x =
(iv) m v d v
u v

x=R

/2

(ii)

cos x dx
0

(iii)

x
1

dx

/2

(v)

/ 2

sin x d x

Exercise 1.7 Solve the following:

/2

(i)

/2

cos x dx
(
1

(ii)

C dq, where C is a constant

0

(iii)

)'

where, 0 is a constant

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MATHEMATICAL TOOLS 1.1 Basic Mathematics for Physics

Answers

Exercise 1.1:

1. (2, 7);
Exercise 1.2

3 2. , 4 ; 2

5 (3) 1, ; 3

a +b a b , (4) ; 2 2

(i) 12x2 + 14x + 6

Exercise 1.3

(ii) (5/2) x4 5/ 2x3

(iii)

1 2x 3/2

(iv)

1 ( x + 4) 2

(i) 3 cos 3x (iv) a cos (ax + b)

(ii) 3 sin 3x

(iii) 4 sec2 4x

Exercise 1.4

1. 30.2

2. 12, 15, 10

3. 0.7.

Exercise 1.5 Answers. x4 (i) 4 x3 1 (iv) 2x x 3

(ii)

x3 + log e x 3

(iii)

(v) 2 x

e3 x 3 4 (vi) e5 x 5

Exercise 1.6 Solution:

(i)

R R x 1 1 GMm dx = GMm 2 dx = GMm x 2 dx = GMm x2 1 x R

1 1 1 = GMm = GMm x R GMm 1 = because = 0 R

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(ii)

/2

cos x dx = [sin x] /.2 = sin sin 0 = 1 0 0 2

2

x4 (2) 4 (1) 4 16 1 x dx = = = 4 4 4 4 4 1 (iii) 1 15 = 4

3
v v2 v2 u 2 m v d v = m v d v = m = m 2 u 2 2 u (iv) u m = (v 2 u 2 ) 2 v v

/2

(v)

/2

sin x dx = [cos x]

/2

/2

= cos cos( / 2) = 0 2

Exercise 1.7

(i) 2

(ii)

Q2 2C

(iii) log

2 0 1 0

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