12.

2 DISPLACEMENTS AND FORCES

711

12.2 DISPLACEMENTS AND FORCES

Our purpose here is to motivate the notion of vector. A quick reading of this section will do.

Displacements
A displacement along a coordinate line can be specied by a real number and depicted by an arrow. For a displacement of a1 units we can use the number a1 and an arrow that begins at any number x and ends at x + a1 . By convention, if a1 > 0, the arrow will point to the right, and if a1 < 0, the arrow will point to the left (Figure 12.2.1). The magnitude of the displacement a1 is dened to be the length of the arrow. Thus, the magnitude of the displacement a1 is |a1 |. Displacements in the plane are more interesting. Instead of having two possible directions, there are an innite number of possible directions. Displacements in the plane are specied by ordered pairs of real numbers. Figure 12.2.2 shows a displacement (a1 , a2 ) beginning at the point (x, y) and ending at the point (x + a1 , y + a2 ). The magnitude of the displacement (a1 , a2 ) is given by a2 + a2 . 1 2 The most general displacements take place in space. Here ordered triples of numbers come into play. A displacement of a1 units in x-coordinate, a2 units in y-coordinate, and a3 units in z-coordinate can be indicated by an arrow that begins at any point (x, y, z) and ends at the point (x + a1 , y + a2 , z + a3 ). This displacement is represented by the ordered triple (a1 , a2 , a3 ). (Figure 12.2.3). The magnitude of the displacement (a1 , a2 , a3 ) is a2 + a2 + a2 . 1 2 3
z (x + a1, y + a2, z + a3) (x, y, z) y y a3

x + a1 a1 > 0

x + a1 a1 < 0

displacement a1

Figure 12.2.1
y (x + a1, y + a2) a2 a1 x

(x, y) O

a displacement (a1; a2) in the xy-plane

Figure 12.2.2

x a1 x a2 a displacement (a1, a2, a3) in space

Figure 12.2.3

We can follow one displacement by another. A displacement (a1 , a2 , a3 ) followed by (b1 , b2 , b3 ) results in a total displacement (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ). We can express this by writing (a1 , a2 , a3 ) + (b1 , b2 , b3 ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ). We can picture the rst displacement by an arrow from some point P(x, y, z) to Q(x + a1 , y + a2 , z + a3 ), the second displacement by an arrow from Q(x + a1 , y + a2 , z + a3 ) to R(x + a1 + b1 , y + a2 + b2 , z + a3 + b3 ),

712

CHAPTER 12 VECTORS

and then the resultant displacement by an arrow from P(x, y, z) to R(x + a1 + b1 , y + a2 + b2 , z + a3 + b3 ). The three arrows then form a triangular pattern that is easy to remember (Figure 12.2.4).
z
en t

R(x + a1 + b1, y + a2 + b2, z + a3 + b3)

s re

ul

ta

nt

sp di

lac

em

Q (x + a1, y + a2, z + a3)

P (x, y, z) O x x

y y

the sum of two displacements

Figure 12.2.4

From a displacement (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and a real number , we can form a new displacement (a1 , a2 , a3 ). We view this new displacement as times the initial displacement and write (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (a1 , a2 , a3 ). The effect of multiplying a displacement by a number is to change the magnitude of the displacement by a factor of ||: (a1 )2 + (a2 )2 + (a3 )2 = 2 (a2 + a2 + a2 ) = || a2 + a2 + a2 , 1 2 1 2 3 3

keeping the same direction if > 0, but reversing the direction if < 0. [If = 0, then (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (0, 0, 0), which you can view as a displacement of length 0.] The displacement 2(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (2a1 , 2a2 , 2a3 ) is twice as long as (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and has the same direction; the displacement (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) has the same length as (a1 , a2 , a3 ) but the opposite direction; the displacement 3 (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = 3 a1 , 3 a2 , 3 a3 2 2 2 2 is one and one-half times as long as (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and has the opposite direction (Figure 12.2.5).

Forces
The algebraic patterns (a1 , a2 , a3 ) + (b1 , b2 , b3 ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ) (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (a1 , a2 , a3 )

12.3 VECTORS
z z

713

y y x x z (a1, a2, a3) x z x

y y 2(a1, a2, a3) = (2a1, 2a2, 2a3)

y y x x (a1, a2, a3) = (a1, a2, a3) x x

3

y y 2 (a1, a2, a3) = ( 2 a1, 2 a2, 2 a3)

3 3 3

Figure 12.2.5

arise naturally in other settings; for example in the analysis of forces. A force F acting in three-dimensional space is completely determined by its components along the x, y, and z axes. If these components are a1 , a2 , a3 , respectively, then the force can be represented by the ordered triple (a1 , a2 , a3 ). See Figure 12.2.6. If two forces F1 = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and F2 = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) are applied simultaneously at the same point, the effect is the same as that produced by the single force F3 = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ). We call F3 the resultant or total force and write F1 + F2 = F3 . For the ordered triples, (a1 , a2 , a3 ) + (b1 , b2 , b3 ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ). Pictorially we have the usual force diagram, Figure 12.2.7. It is a parallelogram with the sides representing F1 = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and F2 = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) and the diagonal representing F3 = F1 + F2 = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ). For any force F = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and any real number , the force F is dened by the equation F = (a1 , a2 , a3 ). Thus, once again we have (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (a1 , a2 , a3 ).
x

fo

rc

a3 y a1 a2 x

Figure 12.2.6
z

F2

F1
F1 y

F2