Bethany Potter 12/14/2011 Anthro 1850 Prof.

Mary Steedly Martial Arts in the United States: Two Extremes The martial arts have held an allure in American pop culture for years. This can be seen in the success of the Karate Kid franchise, from the 1984 original to the 2010 remake. Just last month, the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC, see Glossary) was broadcast over Fox, making its prime time network debut(Sandomir, 2011). The History channel boasts a show called Human Weapon, in which a professional MMA fighter and a former professional football player delve into various styles of martial arts around the globe. These segments tend to display fascination in the extreme, sometimes bordering on fetishizing both the art and the artist (Chambers & Duff, 2007). Like nature loving in Indonesia being used to sell products (Tsing, 2005), martial arts are highly visible in the United States thanks to their visible presence in consumer culture. The tendency to sensationalize the martial arts seems to be as old as the arts themselves. Indeed, Funakoshi Gichin, the father of modern karate, complains frequently in his autobiography that the general population fails to grasp the true meaning of karate, and instead chooses to believe that some mystical force (ki, see Donahue, The Forge of the Spirit, included in Works Cited) makes the karate-ka capable of superhuman feats(Funakoshi, 1975) (Donahue, Wave people: The martial arts and the American imagination, 2002). In this modern world, though, what exactly defines martial arts culture, and, given the seemingly infinite variety of

styles, do they have anything in common? What is even meant by the catchall term, martial art, given that they are so different? In the midst of this continually increasing popularity, I saw what appeared to be two especially divergent approaches to martial arts. On the one hand, there was MMA, with its bloody, hyped-up fights, and its professional fighters. On the other, I saw traditional Shotokan dojos continuing with their polite bowing, disciplined lines and pristine uniforms. This is particularly true within the Japan Karate Association, one of the worlds governing bodies for Shotokan, who pride themselves on being the keeper of karates highest tradition, (Japan Karate Association). After spending time on the mat, though, it seems to me that despite its appearances, MMA retains a great deal of the focus on do, seeing ones martial art as a way of being, that characterize other styles. History Popular legends tend to source most martial arts to China, specifically to Shaolin kung fu and Chinese boxing, kempo, and from there to Buddhist origins in India. Indeed, the character originally used for the kara part of karate means China, and it was only in the 1920s that the character was changed to empty by Funakoshi Gichin (Funakoshi, 1975). This was ostensibly to better reflect the nature of karate as an unarmed form of combat and the Taoist spirituality implicit in the art (see Donahue, The Forge of the Spirit), but it was also part of the process of making karate more Japanese. Okinawan martial arts were initially referred to simply as te, or hand, and were certainly influenced by the Ryukyu Kingdoms (Okinawas) trade with China, although Buddhist monks did probably not import

Potter

Chinese styles wholesale, as folk history would have it (Japan Karate Association). Eventually, different regions developed distinct styles, centering around two of the kingdoms biggest cities, Naha and Shuri. These styles were called Naha-te and Shuri-te, respectively. Born in the late nineteenth century, Funakoshi studied these two Okinawan styles of martial arts. Shorin-ryu, derived from Shuri-te, he studied under Master Itosu, and Shorei-ryu, derived from Naha-te, under Master Azato. He is popularly credited with modernizing and standardizing karate, leading to its widespread popularity in Japan and abroad. Funakoshi began teaching at universities in Tokyo, giving the art that eventually came to known as Shotokan its humble beginnings among young students. From here, Funakoshi eventually achieved notoriety, leading to a head training hall in Japan (honbu dojo) from whence he sent students to teach both domestically and worldwide. He established the Dai-Nihon Karate Kyokai, or Japan Karate Association, and served as its honorary head (Japan Karate Association). Around this time, Kano Jigaro was doing something similar with the martial art known as jujutsu, transforming it into Kodokan judo. He, too, broke down techniques and synthesized existing knowledge, creating a unified system. Among Kanos noteworthy, although less well-remembered, contributions were the introduction of uniform known as the gi and the use of colored belts to denote relative rank. Both of these were actually adopted by Funakoshi for his Shotokan, and have since been incorporated into other styles, including the Marine

Potter

Corps(United States Marine Corps, 2011). Similarly to Shotokan, Kanos judo was also spread by instructors who traveled abroad to teach their martial art. One of these judo instructors was Maeda Mitsuyo, who was both a judo-ka and a professional wrestler. Maeda toured various parts of Latin America, successfully spreading the Japanese martial art of judo along the way. His legacy, though, is found in Brazil, where he taught Carlos Gracie the fundamentals of judo around 1920. Carlos Gracie established a school and taught his brother Hlio what he had learned, establishing the modern system of Gracie Jiu-Jitsu. Now referred to most commonly as Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ), the fighting system developed by the Gracie family has earned great notoriety in recent years thanks to the UFC model developed by Rorion Gracie, and the fighting prowess of the legendary Royce Gracie(Green & Svinth, 2003). BJJ is easily the most recognizable component of a UFC style MMA fight, but it is mainly grappling and groundwork. To get to the rolling stage, fighters need a martial art that is mainly upright. Frequently, the style of choice is Muay Thai, sometimes called Thai boxing or kickboxing. Muay Thai hails, as its names indicates, from Thailand and is dramatically depicted on the silver screen in the film Ong Bak: Thai Warrior and its sequels. Of course, various fighters have found UFC success with a different combination of styles. The fighting style of former UFC lightweirght champion Lyoto Machida is, interestingly enough, Shotokan karate(Lyoto Machida Enterprises, 2011)(Ultimate Fighting Championship, 2011). It is the relationship between each of these martial arts, its practitioners, and its practices that I wish to explore. By training at a highly

Potter

traditional Shotokan dojo and at an MMA gym, I was able to observe two martial arts cultures that felt extremely different at first, but which eventually I came to understand as being profoundly similar. Shotokan

The JKA dojo in Boston, as seen through the main entrance

A common way to talk about the approaches taken by various martial arts is that of hard versus soft. These do not imply anything about the effectiveness of techniques, the amount of injury they can impart, or the power displayed by their practitioners. Rather, the terms describe the physical movements themselves. Shotokan is a hard martial art because its focus is on hard blocks, powerful strikes, and finishing an opponent with a single blow. Walking into a traditional Shotokan dojo, there can be little doubt about the proper way to be in the space. The visitor can immediately orient himself, thanks to the shomens location directly in front of the door, clearly marked by Japanese and American flags, a photograph of Funakoshi Sensei, and a small shrine. To the right are mats, benches, and tall racks full of shoes. To the left of the door is a desk area,

Potter

with flyers for training camps, tournaments, and upcoming grading exams. Next to the desk there is a doorway leading to a sink and a changing rooms. It is a small dojo, located in a larger building that houses a few other businesses, and no space here is left unused. It is used purely for karate training, rather than a room in a gym or dance studio that is rented for a few hours each week. The JKA Boston comes alive in the evening, filling with students for classes that run from 5:00 to 8:30. Karate-ka will arrive up to a half hour before their class starts, even if it only takes them five minutes to change. Milling around as the previous class finishes, the students socialize, stretch, and prepare buckets of water to clean the floor. Before each class, the dojo floor is washed clean by students running its length with wet rags, rinsed clean before each new swipe. This is, of course, a task that is the responsibility of the lower ranks of students. While it is entirely common for higher dan (black belt) ranks to help with cleaning, it more offensive for a lower kyu rank to shirk this duty. With a newly cleaned floor, a bit more time is provided for limbering up, until Sensei gives the word to the senior student that he is ready to begin. At this point, the student (generally a dan grade) will command the class to line, in order of rank, and kneel. On command, the students meditate for a short period of time, then bow to the shomen, to the instructor, and stand up. The instructor will hand the class off to a student to lead war-ups, after which class begins with basics. Classes are divided into three parts, considered the cornerstones of Shotokan karate: kihon (basics), kata (forms), and kumite (sparring). Each class addresses each of these sides of karate, usually starting with

Potter

kihon, moving into kumite, and ending class with kata. Indeed, after enough training, even the individual drills become familiar: the same combinations are practiced, if not every day, at least every month. All of this contributes to a formalized and constant feel at the dojo. Repetition and courtesy are of the utmost importance. When bowing in, the students say onegaishimasu, a phrase that asks the instructor to treat them well, to teach them well, in the upcoming class. When bowing out, they say arigato gozaimashita, which politely thanks the instructor for what he has done. In addition to the formal bowing in and out ceremonies, students bow at the door of the dojo and at the edge of the training floor. This forces the continuous presence, in the students mind, of respect and appreciation for the space where something important is learnt, and the people with whom and from whom one learns. In the grand tradition of university clubs begun by Funakoshi Sensei, Harvard boasts its own Shotokan club. Its practices, while carrying on certain aspects of the dojo training, have their own distinct flavor. Practices are held in various gym spaces, only reserved for a couple hours at a time. Students still bow at the door, and the shomen, while unmarked, is simply recognized. Classes tend to follow a more variable structure: students most often warm up and stretch on their own, and classes frequently address just kata or kumite, rather than both. Classes are smaller, and stopping part way through a drill to ask a question in not uncommon. It is, in effect, a JKA dojo whose structure has been relaxed over time. MMA

Potter

Students at The Academy listen as an instructor goes over testing information

Walking into The Academy, a mixed martial arts facility in Southern Maine, is a decidedly different experience. Its main entrance faces a desk, behind which a friendly pit bull wanders and lazes. Directly to the left is a small shoe rack, and past the desk are an alcove with shelves full of bags, and the doors to the restrooms. To the right is a smaller mat area, and to the left is a gym space. Around the corner are the larger mat and a heavy bag, all accented by a stretch of padded chain link fence, reminiscent of The Octagon, in which UFC matches are fought. Along the top of one wall are Japanese, American, Thai, and Brazilian flags. This functions as the front of the training space, and is the side from which instructors speak and towards which students most often face. The first time I came to this MMA gym I was significantly early, thanks to my fear of being late. Music was playing when I arrived, alternative rock and hip-hop, and the gym was already full of people shadow boxing, rolling on the mats and working the bag. I was greeted by the owner, explained that I wanted to train but would only be able to for a short period of time, and asked if that would be possible.

Potter

He immediately assured me that he would be perfectly fine with this, handed me a waiver and sent me to the mat. Having little experience in BJJ, I was paired off with an instructor to learn some basic moves I would need. Mixed martial arts, typically composed of Brazilian (or, Gracie) Jiu-Jitsu and Muay Thai, are frequently soft, because they focus on absorbing attacks and channeling them into a counter-attack. Coming at this project primarily as a karate-ka, this was the most fundamental and obvious difference I saw when observing MMA for the first time. Class officially began when the instructor shouted for people to start warming up with jump ropes. Each BJJ class started with a review of essentials, which were absolutely vital to maintaining a safe class. Students then circled around him while he explained a technique, demonstrated it, and answered questions. Students then paired off to practice it with each other. After a while, the instructor would bring everyone in again, explain a new technique (usually a follow-up, or an alternative way of dealing with the same situation), and again send people off to practice with partners. Perhaps the highlight of my short time training here was the grappling circuit, a simple hour of rolling with different partners. I assumed that I should not try to participate in this, but was enthusiastically encouraged to do so by members of the class I had just attended, the instructor, and the gym owner. Certain BJJ classes require a gi, while others do not, and the same is true of the grappling circuit. I had left my gi in Cambridge, but a jacket was found for me and I hopped in, albeit somewhat tentatively. I started with one of the instructors, who quickly explained that I only needed to be able to do one submission well (the rear naked choke, which

Potter

I had learned thanks to a karate instructor with a penchant for cross training). If I could keep myself out of trouble, I could simply hang on and wait for an opportunity to use it. Training at this MMA gym was an entirely new experience. More laid back than I was accustomed to, with basics that were easy to pick up and enthusiasm for beginners rolling freely, I initially felt like it was focused solely on winning fights. Returning to do follow-up research, I listened to an instructor talk about the upcoming test, and watched students tug on gis and belts to work an advantage. It was as this point that I started to see where an MMA gym was inextricably tied to its roots among the more traditional martial arts.

Students roll during a grappling circuit (with gi)

Discussion and Conclusion On the surface, these two facilities appear incredibly different. The dojo opens in the evenings, and it is a small space dominated by the training floor. The MMA gym, on the other hand, is much larger and operates almost the entire day, with two different training mats and gym equipment. One blasts music as students

Potter

10

file in and warm up, while the other feels quieter, with bows at the door and muffled footsteps. Despite being used to the somewhat less rigid structure of classes at the university club, the MMA classes were almost shockingly informal at first. In spite of this, though, they both function purely to train martial artists, and in this they share a remarkably similar structure. Both facilities had students mark their entrance by removing shoes. Since students train barefoot, this seemingly serves the function of keeping the area free of dirt from the street. Of course, this could be just as effectively done if students merely removed their shoes at the edge of the floor or mat, but they do not. Rather, the entire training facility is marked as separate space, apart from the rest of the world. Additionally, both the MMA gym and the JKA dojo designate one particular side of the training areas as the front. In both cases, this includes a nod to the history and roots of the art, via flags and sometimes a portrait, and to its current state. Although the JKA dojo includes a kamiza (Donahue, The forge of the spirit: structure, motion and meaning in the Japanese martial tradition, 1991) as part of its shomen (Donahue, The forge of the spirit: structure, motion and meaning in the Japanese martial tradition, 1991) while the MMA gym does not, this sense of a more hallowed or important space is maintained. This is space from which instructors teach, spatially associating them with the arts lineage. Perhaps most interestingly, these are constructed worlds, to which no person is a native. Although some people may have an advantage (Japanese or JapaneseAmerican students at a Shotokan dojo, for example), they are, in this way, similar to

Potter

11

virtual worlds. Additionally, in both virtual worlds and the martial arts, newbies are obvious. Generalizing Boellstorffs description of newbies in Second Life yields parallels to the plight of newbies to martial arts: in the way their appearances (standard avatars or awkwardly tied belts), the way they conduct themselves (learning to take of shoes at the door or switch view modes), and their need for guidance (asking how to make money or learning what it means to be in someones guard) (Boellstorff, 2008). In both these gyms, formal ranking and a more ritualized side of the martial arts do come into play. During gi classes at the MMA gym, rank is denoted by belt. Although the colors used are different, the system is fairly intuitive: more stripes mean higher rank, and darker colors are ranked higher than lighter colors. Indeed, the very use of the gi makes this a ritualized and performative art. UFC matches are fought in only shorts, meaning that certain techniques learned in a gi class can be relatively useless. A cross collar choke that relies on grabbing the tough gi cannot work in the Octagon. Maintaining these training sessions that require a gi, then, maintains this connection to a more stylized and abstracted aspect of the martial arts, despite BJJs lack of formal kata or a strict class structure. While these martial arts appear to be vastly different, they are descended from arts that underwent similar processes of refinement and modernization around the same time. MMA gyms do retain a strong attachment to the abstract and ritualized components of the martial arts, even though they are designed for use in a more free-for-all fighting environment. Both of these are worlds into which no person is born, but rather are cultures that each participant must learn for himself.

Potter

12

Both gym and dojo maintain a strong social aspect, with members milling about and talking before class, utilizing the space for more than simply training. In this way, they perhaps have more in common than not. The Future This paper is extremely short, and cannot even begin to address some fascinating aspects of even just these two martial arts. Some, I believe, merit a great deal of further research. The body, and its use, abuse, presentation and modification would be interesting in the vein of MMA students, who, more frequently than Shotokan students, have tattoos and a more relaxed appearance during training. The economic side of martial arts schools, the necessity of this, and its impact of relations within the school would be equally intriguing. Finally, a study of the role of gender and the presence of women within martial arts culture, both between styles and among different ranks, would be good to study.

Potter

13

Note: Naming conventions used here follow the conventions typical to each individuals home culture. For example, a person who grew up in Japan will be named here using family name first, followed by given name (e.g., Funakoshi Gichin, where Funakoshi is the family name and Gichin is the given name). Glossary Word Bowing in/out Dan Dojo (Honbu) Gi Hard martial art JKA Jiu-jitsu Judo Jujutsu Kamiza Karate Karate-ka Kata Kihon Kumite Kyu MMA Rolling Sensei Shomen Soft martial art Te UFC Definition A short ceremony in which students bow to the front of the room and the instructor before and after class Black belt ranks, for which higher numbers indicate higher ranks A training hall (honbu dojo is the head dojo) A training uniform, consisting of a loose jacket and pants, often white but sometimes colored A style characterized by linear moves and meeting an attacker's force with one's own force The Japan Karate Association, one of many international governing bodies of Shotokan karate A spelling variation of jujutsu, conventionally used for the martial art developed by the Gracie family A martial art founded by Kano Jigaro, literally meaning "gentle way" Literally, "gentle technique," and a precursor of judo (still practiced) A deity seat, the small Shinto shrine found at the shomen of many dojo Literally, "empty hand," and an Okinawan martial art with many variant styles One who practices karate A formalized set of moves designed to help the student better learn and understand techniques Basic techniques, learned on their own and in combinations Sparring, either with set attacks or free Beginner ranks, for which a lower number indicates a higher rank Mixed martial arts, often referring specifically to Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu combined with a more upright style Similar to sparring, but for ground fighting styles Literally, "teacher," and frequently appended to a name as a titular mark of respect The front of the traning area A style characterized by circular moves and absorbing an attack in order to redirect its force Literally, "hand," and used to indicate traditional Okinawan martial arts Ultimate Fighting Championship, a professional MMA circuit

Potter

14

Works Cited Boellstorff, T. (2008). Coming of age in second life: An anthropolgist explores the virutally human. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Leigh-Bell, P. (Director). (2007). Human Weapon: Okinawa [Motion Picture]. Donahue, J. J. (1991). The forge of the spirit: structure, motion and meaning in the Japanese martial tradition. New York: Garland. Donahue, J. J. (2002). Wave people: The martial arts and the American imagination. In D. E. Jones, Combat, ritual, and performance: Anthropology of the martial arts (pp. 65-80). Westport: Praeger. Funakoshi, G. (1975). Karate-Do: My Way of Life (reprint). New York: Kodansha America. Green, T. A., & Svinth, J. R. (2003). The Circle and the Octagon: Maeda' Judo and Gracie's Jiu-Jitsu. In T. A. Green, & J. R. Svinth, Martial arts in the modern world (pp. 61-70). Westport: Praeger. Japan Karate Association. (n.d.). JKA. Retrieved 12 12, 2011, from Japan Karate Association: http://www.jka.or.jp/english/e_index.html Lyoto Machida Enterprises. (2011). Lyoto Machida Bio. Retrieved 12 13, 2011, from Lyoto Machida: http://lyotomachida.net/lyoto-machida-bio/ Sandomir, R. (2011, 11 13). Fox's UFC Broadcast a Hit with Viewers. Retrieved 12 12, 2011, from New York Times: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/14/sports/foxsufc-broadcast-a-hit-with-viewers.html Tsing, A. L. (2005). Friction: An ethnography of global connection. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Ultimate Fighting Championship. (2011). Lyoto Machida. Retrieved 12 13, 2011, from UFC: http://www.ufc.com/fighter/Lyoto-Machida United States Marine Corps. (2011). Martial Arts Training. Retrieved 12 13, 2011, from USMC: http://www.marines.com/main/index/making_marines/recruit_training/training_ matrix/martial_arts

Potter

15