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DIGESTIVE&URINARYSYSTEMS

Disordersofthedigestivesystem AcidReflux:adigestiveconditionwherethestomachsacidbacksup(orrefluxes)into anddamagestheesophagus. Appendicitis:Inflammationandswellingoftheappendixcausedbybacterialinfection. Cirrhosis:Achronicinflammationofthelivertissuecharacterizedbyanincreaseofnon functioningfibroustissueandfat. Colitis: theclinicalpresentationoffever,diarrhea,dehydration,andabdominalpaincan becausedbyanyofanumberofbacterial,viral,orparasiticpathogens.Although bleedingisminimaltononeinpeoplewithmilddisease,thosewithmoderatetosevere ulcerativecolitispresentwithbloodydiarrheawithpus,abdominalcramps,and dehydration.Symptomsofweightlossandfeveroccurinthosewithseveredisease.

ColonCancer:Somecoloncancersareduetogeneticsinwhichafflictedindividuals developthousandsoftinygrowthsintheliningcalledpolypswhicheventuallybecome cancerous. Crohnsdiseaseisanongoingdisorderthatcausesinflammationofthedigestivetract, alsoreferredtoasthegastrointestinal(GI)tract.Crohnsdiseasecanaffectanyareaof theGItract,fromthemouthtotheanus,butitmostcommonlyaffectsthelowerpartof thesmallintestine,calledtheileum.Theswellingextendsdeepintotheliningofthe affectedorgan.Theswellingcancausepainandcanmaketheintestinesempty frequently,resultingindiarrhea. Diabetes:Causebyaninabilitytoregulatebloodsugarlevels.Therearetwodifferent types,"Type1"or"insulindependent"or"type2"or"insulinindependent"diabetes.In typeIdiabetes,thepancreasfailstomakeenoughinsulin.TypeIIdiabeticsproduce enoughinsulin,butthebodyis"resistant"toit.Sincethetissuescannotusetheexisting insulin,theresultisthesameastypeIdiabetes:thereistoomuchglucosecirculatingin theblood.Sincediabetescreatesahigherriskforheartandstroke,diabetesis underwrittenunderitsownseparateheading. Diverticulosis/itis:Diverticulosisisdefinedastheconditionofhavinguninflamed diverticula.Thecauseofdiverticulosisisnotyetconclusive,butitappearstobe associatedwithalowfiberdiet,constipation,andobesity.Theincidenceofdiverticulosis increaseswithage,fromlessthan5%beforeage40yearstogreaterthan65%byage85 years. Diverticulitisisdefinedasaninflammationofoneormorediverticula.Itspathogenesis remainsunclear.Recurrentattacksofdiverticulitiscanresultintheformationofscar tissue,leadingtonarrowingandobstructionofthecoloniclumen.Diverticulitisappears tobemorecommoninpatientswiththelargestnumberofdiverticula1520%ofthose withdiverticulosisdevelopdiverticulitis.1525%ofthosewithdiverticulitisdevelop complicationsleadingtosurgery.Thesecomplicationsincludeabscessformation, intestinalrupture,peritonitis,andfistulaformation.Diverticulitismaybeamoresevere illnessinpatientswhoareimmunocompromised,inpatientswithsignificantcomorbid conditions,andinthosetakingantiinflammatorymedications. Gallstones:Hardlumpswhichforminthegallbladderasaresultoftheinabilityof cholesteroltobindwiththebilesaltswhichprecipitateandformlargecrystals. Heartburn:aburningsensationcausebytheescapeofgastricjuicestotheunprotected Sphincter Hepatitis:Inflammationoftheliver,theliverbecomesenlargedandtender.Some symptomsarefatigue,lossofappetite,stomachand/orabdominalpains,nauseaand fever. Hernia:Theprotrusionofaloopofthelargeintestinethroughanopeningorweakpoint intheabdominalwall.

HiatusHernia:aconditioninwhichpartofthestomachprotrudesthroughthediaphragm intothethoraticcavitycausesdiscomfortandpainandmaybeconfusedwithpain arisingfromtheheart. Intestinalbleeding/Ulcer Mesentericischemia:thedamagetothetissueoftheintestinecausedbyacuteorsudden aswellaschroniclackofbloodsupplytothespecificarea.Itcanbethoughofasthe intestinalequivalenceofaheartattack,causedbybloodclotsinthearteriesthatsupply bloodtotheheart. PepticUlcer:anopensoreintheliningofthestomach Peritonitis:Inflammationofthebodycavity UrinarySystem Theprincipalfunctionoftheurinarysystemistomaintainthevolumeandcomposition ofbodyfluidswithinnormallimits.Oneaspectofthisfunctionistoridthebodyofwaste productsthataccumulateasaresultofcellularmetabolism.Otheraspectsofitsfunction includeregulatingtheconcentrationsofvariouselectrolytesinthebodyfluidsand maintainingnormalpHoftheblood. Inadditiontomaintainingfluidhomeostasisinthebody,theurinarysystemcontrolsred bloodcellproductionbysecretingthehormoneerythropoietin.Theurinarysystemalso playsaroleinmaintainingnormalbloodpressurebysecretingtheenzymerenin. Theurinarysystemconsistsofthekidneys,ureters,urinarybladder,andurethra.The kidneysformtheurineandaccountfortheotherfunctionsattributedtotheurinary system.Theureterscarrytheurineawayfromkidneystotheurinarybladder,whichisa temporaryreservoirfortheurine.Theurethraisatubularstructurethatcarriestheurine fromtheurinarybladdertotheoutside.

Whataresomedisordersoftheurinarysystem? Disordersoftheurinarysystemrangeinseverityfromeasytotreattolifethreatening. Benignprostatichyperplasia(BPH)isaconditioninmenthataffectstheprostategland, whichispartofthemalereproductivesystem.Theprostateislocatedatthebottomofthe bladderandsurroundstheurethra.BPHisanenlargementoftheprostateglandthatcan interferewithurinaryfunctioninoldermen.Itcausesblockagebysqueezingtheurethra, whichcanmakeitdifficulttourinate.MenwithBPHfrequentlyhaveotherbladder symptomsincludinganincreaseinfrequencyofbladderemptyingbothduringtheday andatnight.Mostmenoverage60havesomeBPH,butnotallhaveproblemswith blockage.TherearemanydifferenttreatmentoptionsforBPH. Painfulbladdersyndrome/Interstitialcystitis(PBS/IC)isachronicbladderdisorderalso knownasfrequencyurgencydysuriasyndrome.Inthisdisorder,thebladderwallcan becomeinflamedandirritated.Theinflammationcanleadtoscarringandstiffeningof thebladder,decreasedbladdercapacity,pinpointbleeding,and,inrarecases,ulcersin thebladderlining.ThecauseofICisunknownatthistime. Kidneystonesisthetermcommonlyusedtorefertostones,orcalculi,intheurinary system.Stonesforminthekidneysandmaybefoundanywhereintheurinarysystem. Somestonescausegreatpainwhileotherscauseverylittle.Theyvaryinsize.Theaimof treatmentistoremovethestones,preventinfection,andpreventrecurrence.Both

nonsurgicalandsurgicaltreatmentsareused.Kidneystonesaffectmenmoreoftenthan women. Prostatitisisinflammationoftheprostateglandthatresultsinurinaryfrequencyand urgency,burningorpainfulurination,aconditioncalleddysuria,andpaininthelower backandgenitalarea,amongothersymptoms.Insomecases,prostatitisiscausedby bacterialinfectionandcanbetreatedwithantibiotics.Butthemorecommonformsof prostatitisarenotassociatedwithanyknowninfectingorganism.Antibioticsareoften ineffectiveintreatingthenonbacterialformsofprostatitis. Proteinuriaisthepresenceofabnormalamountsofproteinintheurine.Healthykidneys takewastesoutofthebloodbutleaveinprotein.Proteinintheurinedoesnotcausea problembyitself.Butitmaybeasignthatyourkidneysarenotworkingproperly. Renal(kidney)failureresultswhenthekidneysarenotabletoregulatewaterand chemicalsinthebodyorremovewasteproductsfromyourblood.Acuterenalfailure (ARF)isthesuddenonsetofkidneyfailure.Thisconditioncanbecausedbyanaccident thatinjuresthekidneys,lossofalotofblood,orsomedrugsorpoisons.ARFmayleadto permanentlossofkidneyfunction.Butifthekidneysarenotseriouslydamaged,they mayrecover.Chronickidneydisease(CKD)isthegradualreductionofkidneyfunction thatmayleadtopermanentkidneyfailure,orendstagerenaldisease(ESRD).Youmay goseveralyearswithoutknowingyouhaveCKD. Urinarytractinfections(UTIs)arecausedbybacteriaintheurinarytract.Womenget UTIsmoreoftenthanmen.UTIsaretreatedwithantibiotics.Drinkinglotsoffluidsalso helpsbyflushingoutthebacteria.ThenameoftheUTIdependsonitslocationinthe urinarytract.Aninfectioninthebladderiscalledcystitis.Iftheinfectionisinoneor bothofthekidneys,theinfectioniscalledpyelonephritis.ThistypeofUTIcancause seriousdamagetothekidneysifitisnotadequatelytreated. Urinaryincontinence,lossofbladdercontrol,istheinvoluntarypassageofurine.There aremanycausesandtypesofincontinence,andmanytreatmentoptions.Treatments rangefromsimpleexercisestosurgery.Womenareaffectedbyurinaryincontinencemore oftenthanmen. Urinaryretention,orbladderemptyingproblems,isacommonurologicalproblemwith manypossiblecauses.Normally,urinationcanbeinitiatedvoluntarilyandthebladder emptiescompletely.Urinaryretentionistheabnormalholdingofurineinthebladder. Acuteurinaryretentionisthesuddeninabilitytourinate,causingpainanddiscomfort. Causescanincludeanobstructionintheurinarysystem,stress,orneurologicproblems. Chronicurinaryretentionreferstothepersistentpresenceofurineleftinthebladderafter incompleteemptying.Commoncausesofchronicurinaryretentionarebladdermuscle failure,nervedamage,orobstructionsintheurinarytract.Treatmentforurinaryretention dependsonthecause.

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