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Beginning with Bra hmi
1. _ All_researchers who have studied the origin and development of the Myanmar script accept that its source was
the Bra hmi script which flourished in India from about 500 B.C. to over 300 A.D.
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2. Myanmar script like the Bra hmi script is a system of writing constructed from consonants, consonant combination
symbols -s, j-, -G, -S; vowel symbols related to the relevant consonants, and diacritic marks indicating tone level (niggahita,
visajjaniya). Though the number of consonants and vowels,_and_the name and number of symbols are slightly different
due to the difference
_ _ in the languages which employ the Bra hmi script, the Myanmar writing system and those which
employ the Bra hmi writing system are basically the same.
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3. A study of the track the change through the ages of Bra hmi consonants, consonant combination symbols,
vowels, vowel symbols and diacritic marks clearly show the relationship with the forms of Myanmar consonants, consonant
combination symbols, vowels, vowel symbols and diacritic marks.
4. The relationship of_ similarity
_ between characters and letter forms suggests there is no denying that Myanmar
script had its source in Bra hmi .
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Scripts developed from Bra hmi
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5. The first Bra hmi script was seen about 500 B.C. It had spread throughout India by 300 B.C. in the regin of King
Asoka.
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6. After the dissolution of the Maurya Kingdom established
_ _ by King Asoka, first the
_ Kusa na and Gupta for the
kings. The such convoluted scripts as Kutila and urb_an Na gari , simple script like Sha rda and Bengali developed
progressively according to region and period. Writing forms in those scripts become gradually differentiated regionally
and historically.
7. In South India, the_Andhra dynasty arose after the dissolution of the Maurya kingdom. Then arose such dynasties as
Pallava, Kadamba, Ca lukya and Rashtrakuta.
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8. These Indian Scripts descended from Bra hmi spread to Tibet, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and
Indonesia along with the Indian beliefs and culture in the period 100 A.D. to 800 A.D. and helped in the development in
those regions of indigenous scripts.
22. The developers of the Myanmar script took what was appropriate to the Myanmar language from Sanskrit, Pali,
Pyu and Mon scripts, and rejected what was not appropriate. Sanskrit consonants ¶ and · , and Mon consonants \and
ô, unnecessary in Myanmar, were rejected. (Note ¶ and · maybe found in some stone inscriptions but not extensively.)
Though ta, th and d were note consonants used in Myanmar they were retained so as not o create difficultly in the study
of Pali. The vowel mark a-mf(the long o), the tone mark ( -h ), the character \,í,ü though not extant in Pali and Mon
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were devised. Thus, the Myanmar script which is similar to the Mon script which is descended from Bra hmi , and which
is also related to Pali, Sanskrit and Mon scripts began to be developed in the Bagan period according to the style and
manner of the Myanmar.
Myanmar Consonants
27. In the Myanmar thinbongyi (primer) there are 33 consonants.
u, c, *, C,i 5letters in the u group
p, q, Z, ps,n 5 letters in the p group
#, X, !, ¡,P 5 letters in the # group
w, x, ', ",e 5 letters in the w group
y, z, A, b,r 5 letters in the y group
,, &, v, 0
o,[,V,t 8 letters in the y group
There are 25 grouped letters and 8 letters are not grouped.
28. In the traditional writing of Pali, t with a superscripted dot (tH) is added to u...V to make 33 consonants
in the alphabets u...V,tH. Only the superscript do is taken to be the consonant. The t is added only to enable
pronunciation.
(Note: Some scholars add a heavy tome marker(:) to make altogether 34 consonants. Some make 35 consonants
by u..V,tH,tHh,tH; or u...V,tHh,tH,tH;. This is adding subscript dot( -h)and heavy tone marker (;) to ( -H ) as
consonants.
29. Counting 33 consonants ending in t give reference to Myanmar orthography, while 33 consonants ending in tH
gives reference to phonology.
30. Scholars who wish to end in tH say t is a vowel and should not be listed as a consonant; only tH should be
included. However, it is found that thasserved both as vowel and a consonant from the Bagan period.
(a) Just as the 32 consonants from u to V can be extended by conjoining vowel symbols, so also t can be
extended by conjoining those vowel symbols
(b) Just as other consonants can be written combined with 0qGJ subscript, so also t can be combined with
0qGJ (eg. tGwf).
(c) Just as consonants can be written with superscript devowelizer, so also t was written with devowelizer
symbol in the Bagan period (eg. azdtf, ay’gtf, waytf).
31. On this evidence it is clear that when Myanmar people of old expressed Myanmar language sounds by means of
letters, they invented and used t as consonant. Thus when displaying the extension of consonants in thinbongyi, t
which assumes all the functions of a consonants is displayed at the end with tH which correct in their own manner in the
Pali Texts, the 33 consonants beginning with u and ending with t which meet Myanmar needs are accepted consistently
in the thinbongyi.
32. In Myanmar writing, in addition to the 33 consonants of para 27, small Úused in Pali literature is also employed.
In Pali literature, the p group contains only p,q,Z,ps and Ú in the small form. Big n in Pali is small Ú conjuncted.
In Myanmar writing from the Bagan period, the group p,q,Z,ps,n has been formed with big n. In the lithic inscriptions
of Bagan, Pinya and early Inwa periods, small Ú has rarely been used even in inscribing Pali verses. Only big n is used.
Thus, big n has been regularly used in early Myanmar literature (eg. yñö0*¾D, Asñe ö , nmPf ). Small Ú came to be used
only in about 800 M.E (1438 A.D.). Even then, in the writing of royal literature during the Konbaung period, small Ú
was not used because it "lacked a head". Only big n was used. When Úfwas to be used, it was differentiated from nf
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by means of superscribed dot nf. Thus in writing out the 33 consonants, big n has been used consistently from the
Bagan Period. If small Úis to be included in the p group, then there would be six letters in this group as p,q,Z,ps,Ú,n
which would not be consistent with the collection of 5 letters in each group. Thus since big n has been placed in that
group, Ú is not counted as a consonant.
33. In some Myanmar lithic inscriptions of the Bagan period, two Sanskrit consonants are found. These are ¶ and ·.
Myanmar consonant combination symbols
34. There are four basic consonant combination symbol in Myanmar writing -s,j- , -G, -S. These symbols may be
combined with appropriate consonants out of 33 such as us,jy,pG,vS. These symbols may also be combined with each
other in twos or threes as in vQ,<u,`r.T
35. The five combinations of two symbols are
-s + -G = -R
j- + -G = >-
-s + -S = -Q
j- + -S = j- §
-G + -S = -T
36. The two combinations of three symbols are:
-s + -G + -S = -W
(Note: though no word with this combination has been found, the possibility is displayed in thinbongyi)
j- + -G + -S = `- T
Thus, there are altogether 11 consonant combination symbols.
37. These symbols have been used since Myanmar writing began in the Bagan period. Additionally, from the Bagan
period to the Inwa period, the subscripted v (vqG)J was also extant. vqGJ combines with consonants in the u and y
groups. (e.g. u’,c y
’ ,f yK’, z p’ f) After 800 M.E (1438 A.D.) vqGJ which combined with u group was substituted by ,yifh
and vqGJ which combined with y group consonants was substituted by &&pf (eg. u’>us , y ’>jyK ). This change was
effected by probably due to pronunciation change.
38. With the addition of the vqGJ there were five more double combinations than at the present time. The following
double combination symbols were used form the Bagan to the Inwa period
-s + j- = j -s (eg. Mwsm,Mqsm)
-s + -’ = -’s (eg. c’sif , u’syf )
-’ + -G = -’ G (eg. u’ w
G f, c’ w
G f)
-’ + -S = -S ’ (eg.rS ’ )
Thus, till about 800 M.E (1438 A.D.) in the Inwa period, sixteen consonant combination symbols were employed.
When the sound of v went out of existence in about 800 M.E, the eleven symbols became constant.
Myanmar devowelizing consonants.
39. There are ten consonants used for devowelizing
u group uf , if
p group pf,Úf,nf
w group wf, ef
y group yf,rf
non-group ,f
40. 0PÖaAm"eowftif; shows eight devowelizing consonants uf,if,pf,nf,wf,ef,yf,rf. a0g[m&w¦yumoeD shows
ten with ,f,0f added to the above eight. Myanmar thinbongyi shows the same ten.
41. In the history of devowlizers, 0f became extinct in the 19th century. Úf was used in about the 15th century
(M.E800). Later, it was rejected as being "headless", therefore inauspicious. However, its use became established by the
end of the 19th century.
42. According to the history, setting aside 0f which became unused and adding Úfwhich came to be employed, ten
devowelizing consonants may be counted.
43. In the early stages of Myanmar writing there were up to 12 devowelizers uf,if,pf,nf,wf,ef,yf,rf,,f,0f,[f,tf.
44. At the time [f was used in place of the present heavy tome marker (-;). (eg. om[f = om;,zsuq
f [
d =f zsuq
f ;D ).
[f disappeared at the beginning of the 13th century. This marker (-;) came to be used extensively in 16th century.
45. tf was found from the beginning of Myanmar writing till the 16th century. Letters such as ay , { with long soung
and no devowelizer were made abrupt by devowelizing with tf written as atf ç{tf and read with a creaky tone as ayhçath
Long vowel sounds with devowelizers such as ESifç trfç ed,f were made abrupt by ESiftf ç trftfç ed,ftf but instead of writing
the two devowelizers in sequence, they were written stacked as in ESiŒfç trfŒç ed,fŒ . They were read as ESifh ç thH ç aeY .Thus ,
there existed tf and reduced tf as -Œf .This tf disappeared about the 16th century (900M.E).* which was seen in form as
a subscript successively metamorphosed into subscript dot( -h ).
46. Myanmar has borrowed words from Pali and Sanskrits since the advent of contact with those languages.Some
words have been borrowed in toto(e.g. 'ge ç oDv ç tedpö ç 'ku© ç tewå ).Some words have been adapted to suit Myanmar
tongue and ear (e.g.pdwå á pdwf ç "mwk á "mwf ç p&dw á p½kduf ç rEÅef).In adapting Pali and Sanskrit words various means were
employed. The final consonant was dropped.(e.g.r*f¾ á r*f by dropping final * ).The vowel of the final syllable was
dropped.(e.g. "mwk á "mwf by dropping vowel O of wk ).Thus there came to be Pali and Sanskrit derived words like r*f
ç "mwf with final devowelizers.Thus Pali and Sanskrit devowelizers came into the Myanmar language to augument the
ten Myanmar devowelizers.Myanmar used these Pali and Sanskrit derived devowelizers from the 11th century of the
Bagan period.The adaptation of Pali and Sanskrit words by devowelizing in the Myanmar manner is found in the
literature to be the devowelizing method of o'´gEkom&D .Shin Okkanthamala in his 0PÖaAm"eowftif; calls it "devowelizing
according to Magadha".Collected lists of words derived from Pali and Sanskrit by devowelizing may be found in
o'´gEkom&DowfykHusrf; (1215 M.E) by rkHnif;q&mawmf&Sif0dok'¨ and ygXmEkom&DowfykHusrf; (1221 M.E) by awmifilNrdKUpma&;BuD;OD;BuD; .
47. Twenty seven Pali and Sanskrit derived devowelizers are found. 0PÖaAm"eowftif; shows 22 while v,fwDq&mawmf
shows 25in oifykef;BuD;oHcdyf .Of the 27, 0PÖaAm"e excludes c ç Ú ç X ç x ç" çb çbut includes !.The oifykef;BuD;oHcdyf excludes p ç
X ç y but includes C.The devowelizers,word examples and original Pali and Sanskrit words are shown below.
(Note: 1. when words like Ouú|, t| which end with #f + X are adopted to Myanmar, the last consonant X should be
dropped while #f remains. However, #f is dropped and the words are traditionally written with Xf to make OuúXf, tXf .
2. The word derived from Pali £&d,myx used to be written £&d,mykxf but now is written in the Myanmar style wf
. 3. j'yf derived from Sanskrit j' 0s was written j'Af with Af but is now written in Myanmar style with yf 4. odOKdÆ 0;f ç r*¢Z0
kd ;f
derived from Pali oOÆ0D ç rmCa'0 were written odOKdÆ 0;f ç r*¢Z0kd ;f with 0f was no longer employed as a Myanmar devowelizer
it was also abandoned in Pali derived words. )
48. Previously, Cf too was counted in addition to the 27 devowelizers as a Pali derived devowelizer. rd;k was written in
lithic and ink inscriptions as rd0
k .f But about the 19th century when the notion took hold that rd;k was derived from arC
it was written rdC
k ;f . But from mid-20th century, on the evidence of lithic and ink inscriptions it was dropped.
Myanmar vowels
49. Basically, there are 12 vowels in Myanmar writing. They are t,tm,£,þ,O,OD,{,tJ,Mo,aMomf,tH,td.k The variation
t,tm,td,tD,tk,tl,at,tJ,atm,atmf,tH,tdk can also be written. These 12 basic vowels can be extended with the
employment of tone markers ( -h ) and (-;) and also devowelizing consonants.
50. Such sequential extension of the 12 basic vowels results in 21 vowels listed in the original thinbongyi Kramasa
order depicted below
t tm tm;
td tD tD;
tk tl tl;
at ath at;
tJ tJh tJ;
atm atmh atmf
tH thH tH;
51. If the two tone markers ( -h) and (-;) are subtracted from the above 21 vowels, there remain the original 11
t,tm,td,tD,tk,tl,at,tJ,atm,atmf,tHh . When tdk is added the result is the basic 12 vowels in the Myanmar language.
52. In arranging the 21 vowels in the thinbongyi, only those have been selected which do not have devowelizers.
Hence, td0 k f is not included in the sequence. Later 0f was dropped and tdk was written extensively. Thus tdk which was
not in the original list came to be included
53. There are various views in inspect of vowels as there are in respect of consonants. The early Kaccayana Pali
grammer showed eight vowels: t,tm,£,þ,O,OD,{,Mo. Monggallana showed ten vowels t,tm,£,þ,O,OD,{,Mo,{wf,
Mowf. The Konbaung period o'´AsL[musr;f by awmifwiG ;f q&mawmfcifBu;D azsmf added three tJ,aMomf,tdk to the original
t,tm,£,þ,O,OD,{,Mo to make eleven. tH is not found in these enumerations. Early scholars did not consider tH to be
a basic vowel. Since the superscripted dot ( -H ) is listed as a consonant, the combination with t to make tH is not listed
as a vowel. Myanmar thinbongyi does not included tH in the consonant list. When vowels with no devowelizers are
listed sequentially, tH which has no obvious devowelizer came to be included in the vowel sequence. Thus tH came to
be shown as a vowel.
54. In early Myanmar writing of the Bagan period tJ,atmf,tdk out of the above 12 vowels were not yet found.
During that period -g,f was used instead of -J [eg. yg,fBu;D , yg,fvr G ;f (yJBu;D ,yJvrG ;f )], -0f instead of atmf [eg. w0f,ykZ0f
(awmf,ylaZmf)], -d0,f -k0f,a-d0f, -d0
k f instead of -dk [eg. xd0f, xk0f, axd0f, xd0k f (xdk)]. since ,f , 0f were used in such words as
yg,f, xd0k f they were not regarded to be vowels.
55. These vowel {J was found in aAJomcrmo in the lithic inscription of Shwegugyi inscribed in Pali in 493 M.E(1131
A.D.) The vowel tJ was found in vJu0
kd zf suq
f o
D ol in the iEG,o
f if lithic inscription in 509 M.E (1147A.D.). {J is in
the Sanskrit form while tJ is an adapted Myanmar form. The tJ vowel is not found in Pali. On the strength of {J from
it was included as a vowel in vdy'
d yD u
d musr;f by a,mtwGi;f 0ef and oifyek ;f Bu;D oHcyd f by v,fwq
D &mawmf. However,
the Sayadaw who wrote a0g[m&w¬yumoeDusr;f preferred the Myanmar form tJ. This tJ was also displayed in
o'´AsL[musr;f by cifBu;D azsmf . The a0g[m&w¬yumoeDusr;f said that a-J was not a form of writing found in Myanmar.
tJ became a Myanmar vowel from about 500 M.E (1138 A.D.).
56. The vowel atmf is not found in Pali and Sanskrit. It is a Myanmar vowel. It was written - 0f in the early 12th
century of the Bagan period [eg. ykx0 kd w
f 0f(ykx;kd awmf), vS0u
f m(avSmu f m;) ,c0f(ac:) ]. In later 12th century, the atmf
vowel began to be written in the -f symbol instead 0f of [eg. pmwDw(f apwDawmf),&ac’o(f &acsaomf) ,t[det f pf
(t½Sed t
f apmf) ]. Thereby, it became a basic vowel. atmf was written either with 0f or -f as desired, but by the 13th
century is also came to be written with a-mf; Out of the three forms -0f, -f , a-mf, the first form -0f came to be rarely written
by the 14th century. By the 18th century -f came to be confused with the devowelizer symbol and so was little used. From
that time a-mf came to be written extensively.
57. It was shown in para 54 above that tdk was not listed as a vowel because it included the form 0f. Though tdk could
be found without 0f in a few Bagan period inscriptions it was not standard. td0
k f was used from the Bagan period to
about 1150 M.E. (1738 A.D) in the Konbaung period. tdk without 0f came to be seen in writing from about 100 M.E
(1638 A.D). From about 1150 M.E 0f was popularly used. It continued to be used in the palace. However, in the
Mandalay Yadanabon period td0
k f was rarely seen.
58. Thus, the list of Myanmar vowels was augumented from the original nine t,tm,td,tD,O,OD,at,atm,tH to
twelve by the addition first of tJ then atmf then finally tdk.
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59. Myanmar writing had its source in the Bra hmi script. How the consonants and vowels -f appropriate to the
Myanmar language became consolidated can be seen in the photographic table which compares the various scripts.