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Chapter 12
Recent Advances in Biodiversity of India, 103-101, 2011

MANGROVE BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION STRATEGIES

OSWIN D. STANLEY
Eco Balance Consultancy, 10 C, Dhanalakshmi Apartment, Subhanpura, Vadodara-390 023, Gujarat, India ebcbaroda@yahoo.co.in; oswinbaby@rediffmail.com

INTRODUCTION
Thou madest him to have dominion over the works of thy hands; thou hast put all things under his feet: All sheep and oxen, yea, and the beasts of the field; the fowl of the air, and the fish of the sea, and whatsoever passeth through the paths of the seas. O LORD our Lord, how excellent is thy name in all the earth! Psalms 8:5-9. Hence, it is our inherent responsibility to rule over the earth with dignity. Sustaining diverse habitats associated with marine environment such as beach, sand dune, mudflat, estuary, lagoon, backwater, salt swamp, mangroves, coral reef, marine algae, sea grass bed and coastal saline dry lands is highly essential to preserve the ecological balance. Mangroves are amazing tropical plants that are adopted to survive along the border of the sea reaching up to the edges of the river to the point where the water is saline (Oswin and Kathiresan, 1994). The total area of mangrove vegetation in India is 4,445 km2 which accounts for about 5 per cent of worlds mangrove vegetation. Of the total vegetation, dense patch comprises 1,147 km2 (25.8 per cent of mangrove cover), moderately dense vegetation is 1,629 km2 (36.6 per cent) and open mangrove cover is 1,669 km2 (37.6 per cent) (FSI, 2005). Of this, 60.43 per cent of mangroves are found along the east coast, 25.24 per cent along the west

coast and the remaining 14.3 per cent in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Mangroves are able to sequester around 1.5 tonnes of carbon per hectare per year (Gong and Ong, 1990 and Ong, 1993). The present day Indian mangroves are efficient in sequestering 6,66,750 tonnes of carbon annually. Each hectare of managed mangrove system produces as much as $11, 300 (= INR 580000) a year (Primavera, 1991). The population depending on the coastal and fishery resources in the country directly or indirectly are 250 million; around 20 per cent of the population are living within a distance of 50 km of the shoreline, the population density of coastal areas (432 persons per square kilometer) is significantly higher than that of the country as a whole (256 persons per km) (Sharma and Debabrata De, 2008). Both the natural and man made causes induce reduction of mangrove area and India experiences some 16 common threat factors in different maritime states. The most significant threat is the increasing human pressure on mangrove-resources, and frequent natural calamities like cyclone, storms, surges and floods (Kathiresan, 2002). In the past 25 years, 3.6 million hectares of mangroves, have disappeared from the Earths surface, indicating that the current mangrove area worldwide has fallen below 15 million hectares, from 19.8 million ha in 1980 (FAO, 2004). Conservative

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estimates indicate that on global scale, mangrove vegetstion decline by 1,000 km2 annually. The rate of net loss of mangroves however show a decreasing propensity, from 1.03 per cent loss per annum in 1980 to 0.67 per cent annual loss during 2000-2005 period. This is attributed to increased awareness among the people about the value of mangrove ecosystems, which has led, in turn, to the preparation of new legislation, better protection and management and, in some countries, to an expansion of mangrove areas through active planting or natural regeneration (FAO, 2007). Eleventh Five Year Plan 2007-2012 of Government of India on islands, coral reefs, mangroves and wetlands has decided to extend 100% central assistance to the State/UT government to afforest or plant all possible degraded areas and open mud flat of country. The success rate of mangrove afforestation projects in many countries, including India, if analyzed would bring a gloomy data. The success of mangrove afforestation all over the globe underscores the misunderstanding about the mangrove ecosystem functions and autecology of species. Most of the attempts were not based on well understood principles and well defined aims (Bosire et al., 2008). Many mangrove rehabilitation projects fail due to the inability or unwillingness to apply basic ecological engineering principles (Lewis, 2000, 2005) and others (Turner and Lewis, 1997). Therefore, this article intend to explain the process of mangrove ecosystem functioning with case studies which would help conservationists to decide the appropriate site specific conservation strategy for better mangrove management. MATERIAL AND METHODS Mangrove management plans and practices focusing on Indian perspective are portrayed. Different case studies would indicate the present management approaches of mangrove rehabilitation programs and limitations experienced for attaining success. This paper concentrates on different possible site and problem specific strategies. Suggestions are

proposed to undertake studies and relevant steps to understand mangrove forest ecosystem structure, growth and function; to provide training and fellowships, increasing awareness and empowering skills of various stakeholders. Solutions are recommended to address limitations in social, ecological and management processes dealing with mangrove rehabilitation programs. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION When the species or ecosystem enters the threshold of extinction is the time when often the decision of preservation or conservation of our natural wealth is taken into account. However, it should start even before this point. Preservation of mangroves defined as prevent mangrove forests from further degradation through protection and considerable restriction from open usage. Conservation of mangroves defined as the act of protection, preservation and careful management of the mangrove forests resources under the custodianship of stakeholders. However, in the case of mangrove ecosystem attentions are paid towards mangrove plantation, however the reasons for large-scale degradation or denudation are not addressed. Mangroves are specifically a complicated ecosystem to be restored to its original configuration. Only when the original hydrology is altered the ecosystem starts degrading. Unless the hydrology and topography is restored there is no way restoring the ecosystem by planting more seedlings. No two mangrove ecosystem is similar to replicate restoration efforts or rehabilitation methods. The ecosystem functions should be understood to its fullest extent to conserve the mangroves. Every site needs to be understood for the reasons of degradation, pressures in existence, hydrology and tidal implications, substratum and species preference. Reason for the destruction or stunted-ness may vary from different categories of pressures such as free grazing, lopping, cutting, improper inundation, hyper salinity, industries, urbanization, etc. Plantation process is needed only to facilitate

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or hasten the process or if the site has seed limitation. However, if the hydrology is restored in reference to the natural mangrove forest occurring adjacent to the site, natural pioneer species colonization and biodiversity succession would subsequently succeed. The initial strategy to restore an ecosystem is to conserve the existing mangrove patches and if necessary and feasible concentrate facilitating new establishments. Community Mangrove Plantations in an Indian Perspective In the Indian perspective of mangrove restoration there are several social, ecological and managerial factors which restrict the success of the mangrove restoration projects. Various visible limiting factors are presented for common understanding, technical and managerial rectification. Social Limitations and Strategies : As Labors Involving the community is a good strategy. However, in most of the community based mangrove rehabilitation projects the local user community is involved only as laborers and generally know that they will be paid wages for a particular job or period. However the understanding of importance of the project and future protection of the natural resource are very little. Designing rational understanding of the community and solutions to bring out genuine participation of local users is the major social strategy for the long term success of the mangrove rehabilitation program. Low Wages The pattern of project implementation or the finance flow in majority cases is not made transparent to the community and the wages paid to them are less than the regular payment. Though it is supposed to be the community managed system, but generally it happens to be the other way due to misunderstanding of the objective by the parties, the community and implementing agencies. There, many a times the plantation process is disrupted as the

community laborers prefer to work for other agencies in the field who would pay better wages. Integrity of managerial top level players and implementers is another social strategy suggested for successful mangrove rehabilitation. Lack of Social Tuning and Existing Pay-PlantGo Model Most of the community mangrove projects in India and in most developing Asian countries lack social tuning. It is just the pay-plant-go model existing at present. Nowadays, implementing organizations is coordinating labor for different activities like collecting seeds, developing nursery, planting and write reports. All the social meetings were targeted to mobilize labor and the long term future of the forests or their sustenance attached with ecosystems are hardly explained. For instance, cattle or camel grazing issue and even after project duration of 6 years, the so called strategy of Social fencing to protect mangroves was unachievable in Gujarat. Till date grazing in plantation area is a common scene. Therefore, in future before starting the plantation scheme it is suggested that strategy of addressing the pressures and providing alternative sources of fuel or fodder in many cases would better solve the problem of degradation, destruction or overexploitation. Returns from the Ecosystem The reason for failure in genuine social participation is basically due to lack of immediate visible returns from mangroves. Labor is the only visible benefit which is less attractive for the community to protect or conserve the developed forest or the natural stands. In this view implementing organizations should strengthen the social workers in tune to be able to mould the community to perform better in reality. It is recommended that people with technical know-how should be involved with the social workers to evolve with strategies based on sites to fine tune the community mind set towards genuine participation.

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Survival of community developed mangrove establishment Survival proportions of the community mangrove establishments are highly skeptical. There are defending arguments from the implementing agencies from India stating that even if 5 to 10 percent survival in a long term basis as a success. However the quantum of money and efforts spent on developing the meager percent success is exorbitant and if that amount is spend on other greenery development would be more rational. There would be more than 30 per cent natural forest increase, if the community could just protect without intervening in plantation activity and supporting the natural forest stand to regenerate on its own. Plantation activity just adds more pressure on the weak natural stand by extraction of seeds hampering the natural settlement. So the programs with a success rate of 5 to 10 per cent survival in a long run are unjustifiable. The major failure of such projects is mere misunderstanding of the mangrove ecosystem functioning. It is suggested to adopt ecological mangrove restoration strategies (Lewis 2005) to achieve 100 per cent success of establishment. Six (6) Steps to Successful Mangrove Restoration (Lewis 2005) 1. Understand both the autecology (individual species ecology) and community ecology of mangrove species at the site, paying special emphasis on patterns of reproduction, propagule distribution, and successful seedling establishment; 2. Understand the normal hydrologic patterns that control the distribution successful establishment and growth of targeted mangrove species; 3. Assess modifications of the previous mangrove environment that currently prevent natural secondary succession; 4. Select an appropriate mangrove restoration site through application of Steps 1-3, above, that is both technically likely to succeed in rehabilitating a

healthy mangrove ecosystem, and also takes into consideration resolution of land ownership/use issues necessary for ensuring long-term access to and conservation of sites; 5. Design restoration programs at appropriate sites selected in Step 4, above and initially restore the optimum hydrology and take advantage of natural volunteer recruitment of mangrove propagules for plant establishment; 6. Utilize actual planting of propagules, collected seedlings, or cultivated seedlings only after determining through Steps 1-5, above, that natural recruitment will not provide the quantity of successfully established seedlings, rate of stabilization, or rate of growth of saplings established as quantitative goals for the restoration project. Community and Mangrove Conservation Except the mangrove restoration project is fishermen based, the entire community or the entire village population generally fails to become the long term protecting force of mangrove establishments because of their little dependency or lack of direct benefit extraction. The instinct of natural resource conservation and coastal protection is high among fishermen than any other contemporary stakeholders as fishers have understood the leverage of livelihoods on marine biodiversity and related ecosystems. In order to address the issue of little involvement and ultimate failure of the project, strategies are to be drawn to incorporate the diverse community in mangrove development or to disengage the community participation wherever the dependency level is less. Experiences from various community based mangrove plantation programs denote that diverse community group (In Indian context, local caste systems) is quiet sensitive for being together in long term management and protection of mangroves. In such areas where the site is potential but the community is diverse or little mangrove dependent, the best strategy is that the Forest

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and Environment department perhaps to carry out the mangrove rehabilitation effort without community participation in the management level. Few other mangrove rehabilitation strategies evolved by different researchers in the field are as follows :

Ecological Limitations and Strategies Selecting an inappropriate site, where mangroves cannot be accommodated like open mud flats, areas below mean sea level, highly elevated areas where tidal inundation is improper, heavily flooded or highly inundated areas where the hydrology is irreversibly altered; areas with high utilization pressures, misunderstanding of ecological functioning, converting ecosystems are the few ecological limitations for rehabilitating mangroves. Therefore, it is suggested to follow the basic principles of ecology and

An understanding of the many aspects of human influences on biological diversity and their underlying driving forces is of crucial importance in setting priorities and directing conservation and sustainable use measures (UNEP, 1995). Prioritizing and categorizing species inhabiting mangrove ecosystems for immediate conservation measures is one of the strategies suggested by Kathiresan (2002). He states that in India twenty mangrove species are either endangered or rare or endemic. Formulation of a Generic Code of conduct for sustainable management of mangrove forest ecosystems based on existing knowledge, experience and concepts is suggested by Macintosh and Ashton, (2002). Resource estimation, adequate database and ground verification is vitally important for policy making, planning and management (Macintosh and Ashton, 2002). Economic valuation of mangroves is also one of the approaches that validate the data base. Considering the activities in the upland water catchments area and linking related habitats (e.g. water catchmentmangroves-seagrass-coral reefs) is suggested by Macintosh and Ashton, (2002).

Choose the rehabilitation site as per the factual background information of the area and do not end up attempting conversion of mudflats and other coastal habitats. Obtain a comparison chart of the land elevation, sediment structure, species composition and hydrology of the chosen rehabilitation site prior to deciding the rehabilitation strategy If the history of mangrove in a particular area says it has vanished due to sea level rise, it is rational to leave for natural recovery in the suitable area as the earlier place where mangroves survived is already deep for mangroves to survive Create translocation area for its landward movement, however in most cases it is not possible as most of the shorelines are already occupied due to urbanization, agriculture or other developments Before entering mangrove plantation attempt, thorough observation of referral forests as well as mangrove rehabilitation site is an important strategy, as the referral forest is a standing evidence of natural selection process and represent a easy replicating model Decide strategies to replicate the adjacent referral natural mangroves into the selected rehabilitation site Act along with natural hydrology and ecosystem functioning

Assigning special status and conservation from an ecological and biodiversity perspective as National parks, nature reserve, gazetted forest bio sphere reserve, Ramsar site at national level, or World heritage site at international level is also in global practice.

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The entire venture of eco engineering solutions should be designed with the integrated approach of the Geologists, Hydro-graphers, Dredging specialists and Biologists.

A strategy of canal plantation originated by Tamil Nadu Forest Department in Muthupet and practiced by M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation is successful in the Lagoon mangroves of Muthupet, Tamil Nadu but not in Pichavaram, Andhra Pradesh or other states. Though the canal has narrow measure and shallow canal area, this strategy worked well in Muthupet due to the historical customary practice of annual sediment clearing in narrow canals and traditional prawn fishing using local gears and crafts like Pari and Sar. This fishing method revived the canal annually and kept the hydrological system alive. The custom of owning canals by families and offering as dowry to the daughters to fish for her familys subsistence is still in practice. Bismi Prawn Farms (P) Ltd located in Perunthottam, Sirkali coast is the pioneer model of integrated mangrove shrimp fisheries in India (Oswin and Ali-Hussain, 2001). Mangrove integration with shrimp farming was initiated during the year 1995. Mangroves are planted along the borders of outlet canals, inlet canals, sediments tanks and effluent treatment plants and mangroves, filtered excess nutrient discharge in the out let canals as equal to the inlet water quality (Oswin and Rahaman, 1997). Bismi has diversified its technologies and the candidate species from shell to fin fishes. Recently these efforts have been recognized by the Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR), Government of India and bestowed with National Excellence Award. Ecological mangrove rehabilitation programme called mangreen, by OMCAR Foundation on the coast of Thanjavur district in Tamil Nadu, India involves facilitation of natural water flow system in mangrove creeks and restoring degraded areas through nursery raised seedlings. Genuine participation of fishers has been succeeded by creating awareness among fishers regarding the use of

mangroves through sustainable fishery. Partial harvest of mangrove crabs is allowed to local fishers in limited intervals in the protected mangrove restoration areas. The progress of this approach in the coast is still in scrutiny through international university internship programme from Germany, Croatia and Australia. In mangrove dependent areas like gulfs of Kachch and Khambhat, Gujarat, India alternative solutions for fuel and fodder would subsequently result considerable conservation of mangroves rather than plantation efforts. Ecological restoration strategy if practiced certainly would help rehabilitate mangroves in Gujarat coast (Oswin, 2005a). Many other mangrove restoration attempts in India by several organizations are in the gloomy direction. Especially the mangroves developed by industries and ports for obtaining environmental clearance are appalling. In the Sri Lankan context many mangrove areas have been cut off from its original hydrology due to bund and road construction, courtesy post Tsunami fund flow and urgent construction activities without considering the mangrove ecosystems role in such low lying areas. Similar post Tsunami activities of converting coastal red soil ravines for the construction of Hospitals also is observed in Muttom-Kanyakumari coast of India; these coastal ravines are very important natural shelter ecosystem, which also helps drain rain water from the catchments to sea (Oswin, 2005b). Management Strategies In order to succeed any mangrove rehabilitation project, apart from ecological and social strategies, having a code of management strategies right from donors to implementing agency is imperative. Design Change of the Project: Primary Requirement for Success The failures of implementing agencies or community in developing successful mangrove establishments, monitoring systems and protection or conservation modules not only

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lie with the efforts and integrity but mainly with the design of the project. The project design should be based on the following

management

Risk Factors and Possible Solutions Performance Monitoring Systems Performance Indicators Long Term Protection and Conservation Strategies (Practicable) Compensation for project failures

Available suitable sites in the village Pressures exerted on mangroves Percentage of pressures on mangrove ecosystem Direct dependents Dependency pattern Stakeholders dependency Diversity of the community Players of environment development of the area (To Avoid Repetition) Strength of the implementing organization in community mindset tuning (not labor organizing capacity)

Emerging Threat The mangrove plantation activities themselves are becoming a major threat to the naturally prevailing mangroves. The reasons are as below :

Larger Target Areas Seed Exploitation for continuous consecutive years from same stand Interference in natural forest regeneration and recruitment High percentage failures in artificial regeneration (seed wastage) Incorrect Performance Indicators (area coverage and density being indicators of mangrove development projects leaving behind the survival and recruitment capability) Benefit Extraction (compulsory fodder collection from undeveloped establishments if it happens to be a community based project)

Project Design should have the following phases Phase I-Proposal

List of pressures or issues on mangrove ecosystem Strategies to address pressures or issues Duration to address the pressures or issues (perhaps 2 to 3 years) In house Capacity and funds to address the same partially Community tuning strategies Risk Factors and Possible Solutions Scope of mangrove plantation or restoration

(Unless succeeded, going further for mangrove development is not recommended) Phase II-Proposal

Gathering the restoration practitioners, annually in one roof and bring one accord, regarding mangrove ecosystem functioning is one of the strategies suggested. This would widen knowledge among ecologists on restoration due to the exposure to different case studies, as well as help to evolve with more successful solutions. CONCLUSION Government of India in March, 2007 in its Eleventh Five Year Plan 2007-2012, has come out with a set of plan which is very appreciable and applicable; if implemented with the same magnitude would make a considerable positive

Detail and development

Area

of

ecosystem

Site feasibility reports Suitable Technologies Technical Approaches for ecosystem

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impact. The success rate of community participation, the well accepted conservation strategy is directly proportional to the percentage of resource dependency. Thorough regional understanding of any particular mangrove ecosystem functions along with ecological and social interactions is the base to evolve with an effective code of conduct. Funding agency should develop a mode to fund for the right strategy through questionnaires and special short term studies to understand the ecosystem. Besides, implementing agency

also should be responsible for understanding the regional mangrove ecosystem and bring out the appropriate conservation strategy. Strategy should be designed based on mangrove conservation needs and not on financial fetch, which makes most of our mangrove development efforts with minimal returns in India. The strategy of linking ecological strength with and engineering techniques could also be a better solution for coastal protection in eroding coastlines.

REFERENCES Bosire, J., Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Walton, M., Crona, B.I., Lewis III, R.R., Field, C., Kairo, J.G., Koedam, N., 2008. Functionality of restored mangroves: a review. Aquatic Botany doi:10.1016/j.aquabot.2008.03.010 FAO, 2004. Forest Resources Assessment Working Paper 063, FAO, Rome. FAO, 2007. The Worlds mangroves, 1980-2005, 2007. FAO Forestry Paper 153. FAO, Rome. Gong, W.K. and Ong, J.E. 1990. Plant biomass and nutrient flux in a managed mangrove forest in Malaysia. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 31 : 519-530. Kathiresan K. 2002. Mangroves in India: Status, challenges and strategies, Conserving Our Coastal Environment, Joint UNU-Iwate-UNESCO International Conference, 8-10 July 2002. Lewis, R.R. 2000. Ecologically based goal setting in mangrove forest and tidal marsh restoration in Florida. Ecol. Engineering, 15(3-4) : 191-198. Lewis, R.R. 2005. Ecological engineering for successful management and restoration of mangrove forests. Ecol. Engineering, 24(4 SI) : 403-418. Macintosh, D.J. and Ashton, E.C. 2002. A review of Mangrove Biodiversity conservation and Management. Centre for Tropical Ecosystems Research, University if Aarhus, Denmark., Final Report 10/06/2002. Ong, J.E. 1993. Mangrovesa carbon source and sink. Chemosphere, 27 : 1097-1107. Oswin S.D. and Kathiresan. K. 1994. Pigments in mangrove species of Pichavaram. Indian J. Mar. Sci., 23(1) : 64-66. Oswin S.D. and Ali-Hussain, S. 2001. Integrated mangrove Shrimp Silvofiheries: A pioneer organic shrimp culture model in India. Aquaculture Asia, 4(4) : 5-9. Oswin S.D. 2005a. Status of Indian Mangroves and The Legend of Mangrove Restoration in Gujarat Proceedings Nat. Sym. Conservation and Valuation of Marine Biodiversity, 26-29 Dec2005, Zoological Survey of India, Chennai. Oswin S.D. 2005b. Razing off Coastal ravines to Extinction: Courtesy Post Tsunami Development. Panda Bulletin 10(4) : 3. Oswin.S.D and Rahaman, A.A. 1997. Impact of Aquaculture effluents on Mangroves In: R. Santhanam, V. Ramadhas and P. Gopalakrishnan(Eds.)., Proceedings of the National Seminar on Water Quality Issues in Aquaculture Systems. 15-22

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Primavera, J.H. 1991. Intensive prawn farming in the Philippines:Ecological, social and economic implications. Ambio, 20(1) : 2833. Sharma S.P. and Debabrata De, 2008. State of Forest Report2005 and Integrated Coastal Zone Management. FSI, Enviro News, 14 : 1-16 Turner, R.E., and Lewis. R.R. 1997. Hydrologic restoration of coastal wetlands. Wetlands Ecol. Manage, 4(2) : 65-72. United Nations Environment Programme, 1995. Global Biodiversity Assessment. Cambridge University Press.