Leaving Certificate Ag.

Science Cereal Production

Cereal Production
~ Cultivations Machinery and Methods ~
1. Introduction For any crop, either tillage or grassland, a suitable seedbed must be prepared. The soil provides the crop with support, water, air, nutrients and heat. Sub-ploughing, ploughing and cultivation are a major key to the success of the crop. The other major influence is fertiliser application. 2. Subsoilers and sub-ploughing. On heavy or poorly structured soils, it may be necessary to loosen the soil to a greater depth than achieved by ploughing alone. This is done to improve drainage and root penetration. One of the major causes of this problem is the formation of a plough pan.
1

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

This is a layer of compacted soil created by the repeated ploughing of the same area of soil. The weight of the wheels of the tractor and plough pressure cause this. This can also happen after a crop of sugar beet, where the machinery to harvest the beet creates a compacted layer. Subsoilers are commonly used to alleviate the problem.

They consist of one or more vertical tines, which have replaceable feet or shares. For more than one tine, a high powered tractor is required.
2

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

Subsoiling should be carried out on dry soil, at a depth of 40 50cm and 1-2 metres apart 3. Ploughs and Ploughing The plough is used to turn over a layer of soil in preparation for further cultivation and sowing. Ploughs can turn from one to eight furrows or furrow slices at a time.

The functions of each of the parts of a plough are shown below: A. The Beam A single horizontal bar to which the plough units are attached. B. The Rear Wheel Attached to the rear of the beam and controls the depth of the plough. C. The Leg Links the beam and each plough unit.
3

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

D. The Disc Coulter makes a vertical incision in the soil, cutting the side of the furrow. E. The Share Makes a horizontal incision, cutting the bottom of the furrow. F. The Mouldboard Lifts and turns the furrow. G. The Landside Aligns the plough by pressing against the unploughed ground. H. The Skim Coulter Cuts a small slice off the edge of the furrow and throws it away into the previous furrow bottom. This stops the previous crop from growing between the furrows. 4. Methods of Ploughing When ploughing using a regular plough, furrows are thrown to the right. When ploughing a large field, this results in wasted time (IDLE TIME), fuel and labour.
4

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

This time can be reduced by ploughing in lands. This involves dividing the field into small areas and ploughing these separately.

Both methods of ploughing result in the formation of ridges empty areas. This problem can be alleviates by the use of reversible ploughs.

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

A reversible plough consists of two sets of plough units, one of which is idle while the other ploughs One set throws furrows to the right, and the other throws them to the left. This reduces idle time and leaves no ridges. This makes cultivation much easier. However, reversible ploughs are very expensive and only contractors usually buy them. 5. Autumn and Spring Ploughing Autumn ploughing is considered more effective than spring ploughing.
6

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

This is because land ploughed in autumn leaves the soil exposed to wetting and drying and to the freeze-thaw phenomenon. This leaves the surface of the soil more broken up and easier to cultivate in the spring. Seedbeds are more easily prepared, soil conditions are better and sowing dates are earlier. Autumn ploughing is almost essential on clay and silty loam soils, especially if they are be used for growing sugar beet or potatoes. 6. Cultivators and Harrows Between ploughing and sowing, cultivation operations provide: i. A suitable seedbed for seed germination and plant establishment ii. A suitable soil environment for subsequent growth.

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

The ideal seedbed for cereals and most crops is as follows:

Soil Depth 0-5 cm 5-10 cm 10-25 cm Soil Conditions Fine, compact to provide good contact between seed and soil water. Moderate soil conditions allow good root development. Coarse soil conditions allow anchorage and root development for mature plant.

Over cultivated soil conditions lead to poor aeration and poor root development. There are a variety of equipment and machinery available for cultivation. These include: I. Heavy- Duty Cultivator These machines simply consist of a frame with a series of tines, which stir and break up the soil. They range in strength, size and weight depending on the purpose.
8

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

There are three different types of tines available. i. Rigid ii. Spring Loaded iii. Spring Tines II. Harrows Harrows are lighter than cultivators, and are generally used for seedbed preparation. There are three main types of harrows. a. Tined harrows seed bed preparation b. Disc harrows seed bed preparation in grass c. Chained Harrows very light seedbed prep.

III. One Run Harrows One run harrows can be used on sandy / loam soils to create a seedbed in one operation after ploughing
9

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

They contain three basic components: i. Levelling bar Breaks up clods ii. Spring Tines Create fine particles iii. Soil Crumbler Creates final seedbed and compacts the soil.

IV. Power harrows These consist of two reciprocating tined bars, which break up clods of soil. A crumbler may also be fitted behind the power harrow.
10

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

V. Rotavator (Rotary Cultivator) A Rotavator consists of a rotating bar with L shaped blades. The bar is powered by the tractor, and can run at speeds of 90 240 rpm. The blades bite into the soil and throw it against a metal hood, breaking up clods. The Rotavator is a very powerful machine and can produce a seedbed in one run. It is however very expensive and has a very small working width. It can also cause some soil structure damage, so it must be very carefully controlled.

11

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

It is used extensively in horticulture. VI. Rollers Rollers are used to remove clods and to produce a smooth soil surface. The may be used before sowing or after sowing to compact the soil and improve seed germination levels. There are two kinds Cambridge (or Ridged) and Smooth.
12

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

The level of compaction can be controlled in two ways: o The weight inside the roller. o The speed of movement. ***************************

13

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

Cereal Production
~ Barley Production ~
Barley is the fourth most commonly grown cereal in the world. It is used as feeding barley and for malting. The quality of malting barley must be higher than that of feeding barley so more care, skill and experience is required when growing it. Malting barley is usually grown on contract to the large breweries and distilleries. 1. Soil Suitability and place in rotation. The best soils for malting barley are MEDIUM LOAMS. Grown in Wexford and Louth (on brown Earths) and the midlands (on Grey Brown podzolics) Barley needs a pH of 6.5 to 7.5. Lime may need to be added if the soil is too acidic.

14

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

Barley can be grown continuously (AFT Institute in Clonroche). Barley does however give higher yields when grown in rotation. When growing after a ley, pests can be a problem, and best results come in the second year of growing. After a root crop the soil can become quite compacted and more cultivation may be required. 2. Mineral requirements Soil testing is required to find the nutritionist needed in the soil. Generally speaking 20 25 kg of P and 40 45 kg of K are required for average soils. The level of nitrogen needed depends on the type of soil and on the previous crop.

15

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

Too much nitrogen will cause lodging and will raise the levels of protein in the barley, thus making it unsuitable for malting. All N should be applied at sowing. 3. Varieties Dep. Of Ag publishes a list of recommended varieties each year. Winter barley: Winter barley can be either two or six row varieties (four row no longer being used). Igri and Panda are well known two row varieties sown in the winter. They make up 98% of all winter barley sown. Gerbel, Jaidor and Olympic are example of six row varieties sown in the winter. Spring Barley All are two row varieties.

16

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

For feeding barley the most commonly sown varieties are Triumph, Fleet, klaxon and Beatrice. For malting barley Triumph, Grit and Emma are common varieties. Winter barley has advantages over spring barley. o Mixed farmers have more time in the winter as the cattle may be drying off. o If you sow in the spring you may not be able to get the equipment you need. IN the winter the equipment would be idle. o But when sowing winter barley you require more seed and more cultivation work. 4. Seed and Seeding a. Seed Should be of high germination capacity. Free from seed borne diseases. Free from weed seeds (Wild oats)
17

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

True to name. Protected against wireworm and fungal diseases. When using your own seed you should avail of the free seed testing service from the Dep. of Ag. b. Sowing rates For spring barley the rates should be 125 155 kg / ha depending on the variety and size of grain. For winter barley the seeding rates are higher but recent experiments have show that there is little difference between high and low seeding rates because of tillering. Rates have reduced over the last number of years because of better understanding of tillering and genetic engineering.

18

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

Lower rates give strong straw, less lodging (falling over straw) and a reduced risk of eyespot disease. c. Sowing time The ideal time for winter barley is the second half of September but can be sown up to November depending on the weather. If sown earlier the grain quality is poor and if sown later the yields are reduced. Spring barley should be sown early February depending on the weather.

d. Seed Bed The seedbed for barley should be fine, well prepared and well settled. It should not be spongy. Autumn ploughing is recommended for the seedbed preparation.
19

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

Sometimes difficult to sow barley after potatoes or sugar beat. Deep ploughing is not necessary and the seed should be drilled no deeper than 5cm. e. Weeds and Weed Control After a root crop, weeds are not usually a problem. If growing barley after another cereal then harrowing, rotavating or shallow ploughing is necessary. This causes the weed seeds to germinate, after which they can destroyed using weed killers or further cultivating. This process can remove Scutch. Systemic weed killers can be used to remove Scutch. They should be applied when the cereal is nearly ripe.

20

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

This not only removes the weed but also speeds up the ripening process of the cereal. Selective herbicides are applied at Autumn or Spring to protect against Broad Leaf Weeds. 5. Harvesting the Barley. The straw should be dead with the barley well ripened. The grain should be dry and hard with moisture content of about 15%. Feeding barley can be harvested at a higher moisture content if adequate drying is available. Seed and malting barley should not be heat dried. These seeds should be stored in a well ventilated place. Thresh with care also. Yields:

21

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

Are usually 4-5 tonnes per hectare but one should aim for a yield of 7 tonnes. In addition there should be about 3 tonnes of straw per hectare suitable as winter feed and bedding. 6. Pests and Diseases a. Pests: There are three main pests of barley, the wireworm, the leather jacket and the Gout fly. Wireworms: They are the larvae of the click beetle. Only cause problems if sowing barley after a ley and even then in the first two years only. Can be controlled using a dual purpose seed dressing. Leather Jackets: They are the larvae of several species of Crane fly or Daddy long Legs. Must be controlled by spraying with insecticides or a bait.
22

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

The Gout fly (Larvae): Attack late sown crops only. Feeds on the stem and the ear. Really only prevented by early sowing. b. Diseases of barley. The main diseases of barley in Ireland are powdery mildew, Leaf stripe, loose smut, take all and Eyespot. i. Powdery Mildew Severity of the fungus varies each year but it can cause some severe damage when badly affected. Diagnosed by greyish white spots on the shoot of the plant initially but it spreads all over the plants. Best suited to warm and dry weather conditions. The fungus can over winter on winter sown crops.
23

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

Prevented by proper stubble treatment (harrowing etc), early ploughing and fungicides. ii. Leaf Stripe Again this is a fungal disease. Caused by the spores of the fungus attacking the seed grain. When the seed germinates the fungus attacks the young plant, causing brown stripes to appear on the young leaves. Can sometimes kill the whole plant. Seed dressing of fungicides can be effective against the fungus. iii. Loose Smut Brown black dust appears on affected plants ears. Air borne spores are contained in this dust.

24

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

The fungus can grow into the grain and affect the plant quite seriously. Prevented by seed dressing. iv. Take all. Soil borne disease not like the other three. Diagnosed by bleached affect on the ear of the plant. The ear of the plant dies before maturing and the plant produces a small grain. No effective seed dressing. If the disease is recognised then wheat and barley should not be grown on that fild for a few years. v. Eyespot Also a soil borne disease. Diagnosed by an eye spot appearing on the stem just above ground level.

25

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

It weakens the straw and causes lodging and reduced yields. Prevented by good crop rotation. Other barley diseases include leaf blotch, Covered Smut, Leaf scald and yellow dwarf virus.

********************************************

26

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

Cereal Production
~ Important Points to Note ~
Tillering Tillering is the ability of cereals and grasses to form auxiliary or side shoots from the main shoot. These grasses have short stems but can develop flowering shoots. Tillering can be enhanced by a series of shocks to the plant such as frost or sheep grazing. Additional Phosphorous also initiates tillering Autumn Ploughing - Advantages Can improve the structure of soil by allowing the winter frost to break up the clumps. Results in a better seed bed the seed bed is able to settle and therefore the seed germination is better. Allows earlier sowing and therefore either longer growing periods or earlier harvesting.
27

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

Can increase yields of spring crops by 500 kg/ha Conserves soil moisture levels and helps control weeds. Utilises the machinery more effectively as it would be used when little demand is required for tractors etc. Reduces the cost of spring cultivations. Helps control certain types of weeds and certain fungal diseases. Catch Crops A catch crop is a crop grown on land that would normally be idle (Winter to Early Spring) Advantages include: Winter-feeding for land otherwise not utilised. Control weeds by shading the ground. Adds organic matter to the soil Protects soil structure against heavy rain. Conserves leachable minerals
28

Leaving Certificate Ag. Science Cereal Production

Sometimes can add Minerals to the soil e.g. Legume add N. Conserves soil moisture. Examples of catch crops are: Italian Rye Grass, Kale, Fodder rape, Vetches. ******************************************

29