Standing up for Academic Freedom: The Case of Irving Goldman Author(s): David H. Price Source: Anthropology Today, Vol.

20, No. 4 (Aug., 2004), pp. 16-21 Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3694997 Accessed: 11/01/2010 16:18
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=rai. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Anthropology Today.

http://www.jstor.org

Standing up
DAVID PRICE H.
David Price is Associate Professor ofAnthropologyat St. Martin'sCollege. He has recentlypublished Threatening anthropology: and McCarthyism the FBI surveillanceof activist (Duke anthropologists UniversityPress, 2004). He can be reachedat: dprice@stmartin.edu.

for

academic

freedom

The case of Irving Goldman

Fig. 1. Irving Goldman, 1911-2002.

This paperbenefited from the commentsof JaniceHarper, Bill Peace, Eric Ross and four anonymousAT reviewers. Special thanksare due to ValerieParkof the Sarah LawrenceCollege Archives for assistancein identifying membersof the Board. 1. IrvingGoldmanmade significantacademic to contributions our of understanding cultural groupsin Amazonia,Oceania and the Pacific Northwest coast, and throughhis decades of classroom teaching (see Goldman1941, 1963 and 1970, Rubel and Rosman2003). 2. See obituaryindex at: http://homepages.stmartin.edu /fac_staff/dprice/deadbook.pdf 3. By the end of July 1947, 11 StateDepartment employees had been either fired or allowed to resign before being fired. These 11 were JamesM. Anaara, WoodrowWilson Borah, HaroldBellingham,Leonard Bennie, IrvingGoldman, HannahGoldman,Alexander Lesser,FlorenceLevy, P. BernardMortman,John Terebesayand Harold Weisberg(see WFO 7723351-5X; cf Washington Post 18/11/47: 1). 4. The FBI also identified Paul Radinas anthropologist having links to the Silvermasterspy ring (for more on Radin'sties to see Silvermaster, Price 2003, 2004a). 5. MauriceH. Halperin was pressuredto resign his position at Boston University afterrefusingto answerall of the SenateJudiciary Committee'squestions regardinghis past links to the CommunistParty(Kirschner 1995). He lived in Mexico for severalyears and in 1958, as the US JusticeDepartment triedto extraditehim to face

Over the last dozen years I have used the Freedom of Information (FOIA)to declassify tens of thousandsof Act of governmentdocuments on anthropologistsheld pages by the FBI, CIA, National Security Agency, State Department, Office of Strategic Security and other American governmental agencies. When I began this researchmy aim was to learnmore aboutanthropologists' contributionsto the Second World War, but as records were slowly declassified I became increasinglyinterested in other aspects of the Cold War'sinfluence on American anthropology.My researchhas come to investigate both and the relationshipsbetween anthropologists intelligence Price 2002) and the impactof McCarthyism agencies (see on the development of American anthropology (Price 2004a). As anthropologistswe spend extended periods of time in towns, cities, villages and communities, and so often the come to appreciatesympathetically hopes, dreamsand values of those people we have lived amongst.We are also valuable sources of informationfor agencies seeking to interferein these communities.My dozen years of historical research on anthropologistspursued by intelligence agencies in the 1940s and 1950s altered my opinions of of theirwork and also left me with a soberappreciation the dangerswe face today in the contextof the Americanpresident's war on terror. Here I presentan overview of the recently released FBI file of anthropologistIrving Goldman, and examine his travails before the Senate Judiciary Committee and his college's board of trustees. We can learn a lesson from these events. In this article I wish to clarify not only in what specific ways such interactionsthreatenedacademic freedom in the past, but also how one board of trustees managedto protecta faculty member.'

rCl) F--

0
_6 v,
0 --

CO

Fz z 0
a 0_

Mytrail to Goldman
Eight years ago I received a copy of anthropologist Melville Jacobs'FBI file. The FBI investigationof Jacobs duringthe 1940s and 50s began after he was named as a communist at state congressional and University of Washingtoncampus hearings. Jacobs' file contained an interestingbut highly redactedfour-pageletterwrittenby one of his colleagues to FBI DirectorJ. EdgarHoover on 1 January1949 (WFO100-4082-69). This letter identified 11 other anthropologistsas either communists or fellowtravellers after these scholars spoke out at an American AnthropologicalAssociation (AAA) meeting in favour of a motion to supportarchaeologistRichardMorgan, who was being fired by the Ohio StateMuseumon the grounds that he was allegedly affiliated to the CommunistParty (see Price 2004a). When I originally received this letter from the FBI, censors withheld the names of 11 of the 12 anthropologistsand of the letter's author.Only Melville Jacobswas identifiedas one of the twelve. The missing names were withheld because the Federal Privacy Act prevents the disclosure of records held on living individuals.Jacobs' identitywas disclosed because I had providedthe FBI with a copy of his obituarywhen I applied for his FBI file. I then devised an appealto establish the identities of the withheld names. I limited my appealto the four pages of the same letter and enclosed a copy of a comprehensiveobituaryindex of all obituaries appearingin the AmericanAnthropologistand the AAA's

AnthropologyNewsletter, and I asked the FBI to crosscheck the names of anthropologistsnamed in this letter with the deceased anthropologistslisted in my obituary index - so thatthe names of deceased individualscould be released.' After some correspondencemy request was granted, andtwo years laterthe FBI mailedme a new version of this letter.I now had the name of its authorand six of the 12 anthropologists fingeredas communists(see Price 2004a). The new version revealedthatanthropologist GeorgePeter Murdock,of Yale University, was the FBI informerwho wrote this 1949 letter.An FBI censor had accidentallyalso released the identity of anthropologistIrving Goldman, who was then still alive (and not listed in the obituary index I provided to the FBI) and whose identity should have been protected.The paragraph identifying Goldman was properly redacted, but his name was mentioned in passing in a paragraph discussing anthropologist Alexander Lesser. This released fragment stated that: '[u]nlike Goldman,however, [Lesser]has for many years been an active organizational leader...' [my italics]. Lesser and Goldman were fellow students at Columbia, subsequently taught at Brooklyn College together and later workedtogetherat US Department Stateduringthe war. of In the early 1990s I had contactedIrving Goldmanafter reading about his McCarthy era travails in Ellen Schrecker'sbook, No ivory tower, but he had been understandablyunwillingto talk with me aboutthese past events (see Schrecker1986). When I called him years later with the news that Murdockhad reportedhim as a communist in 1949, he spoke with me aboutthese events on the understandingthat I would not write about them until after his death.After his deathin April 2002, I filed a FOIArequest with the FBI for files on him. The released files shed importantlight on the FBI's efforts to investigate and harass Goldman as he began his teaching career in the post-war period, but they also contain an extraordinary report on the influence of communists on Columbia of University'sdepartment anthropologyduringthe 1930s. The contents of this FBI file are reviewed below.
ANTHROPOLOGYTODAYVOL 20 NO 4, AUGUST 2004

16

espionage charges,he moved to Moscow where he worked as an analystat the Soviet Academy of Sciences until 1962. He then taughtat the Universityof Havanauntil moving to Simon Frazer Universityin British Columbiain 1968 (see Kirschner1995). 6. See Price 2004 for a discussion of Robert Redfield's shifting views the regarding proprietyof communistprofessors. 7. 'Bruce Minton'was the CommunistPartypseudonym used by MJB coffee heir RichardBransten.Bransten was a financialbackerof the New Masses and was a successful Hollywood screenwriter (see Herken 2002). 8. GeorgeMurdockwas also at Yale in 1949 (CIRA 1950), but he did not have as much detailedfirst-hand knowledge of Columbia's as department anthropology Linton. 9. In June 1940 Attorney GeneralJacksoncreatedthe CustodialDetentionProgram, empoweringthe FBI to compile lists of American citizens and residentaliens believed to be affiliatedto subversiveorganizations. Withthis, the FBI's budget jumped from $8.7 million in 1940 to $14.7 million the following year (see Theoharis 1999, 2002), as the FBI was given broadpowers to conductbreak-ins,installwire taps, and use confidential to informants gatherhearsay statementspertainingto the beliefs and actions of a wide rangeof US citizens. In July 1943 AttorneyGeneralBiddle the instructed FBI to discontinueits Custodial DetentionProgram.In March 1946, AttorneyGeneralTom C. Clarkenactedthe FBI's secret SecurityIndex Program. 10. One FBI memo indicatesthatthe FBI was of illegally given a transcript the InternalSecurity Committee'sexecutive session (WFO 77-23351-10, 1/4/53). The committee focused on Goldman'syears at Columbiastudyingwith Boas, stressinghis funding for British Columbia fieldworkin 1935, and focusing on Moses Finkelstein'sposition as a researchassistantto Boas, and his past associationwith his professorRuthBenedict, and her work with Gene Weltfish.On this same day Gene Weltfishtestified before McCarthy'sGovernment Permanent Operations Subcommitteeon Investigations.

Goldman's FBIfile
Like most of the declassified files I receive each month, the documents in Goldman's file revealed recurrent themes that I had encountered in many other files (activism leadingto partymembership,careersetbacksfor party members, marginalizationdue to activism, etc.), along with some unique features. One consistent theme runningthroughthe 30,000 pages of files I have examined is that duringthe 1940s and 50s the FBI was more interested in identifying and harassinganthropologistactivists - working for racial, gender, ethnic equality - than they were in identifying and harassingparty membership-carrying communists or socialists. In Goldman's case, his persecutionalso resultedin the unusualexampleof his college's boardof trusteesstandingup to the SenateJudiciary Committee'sharassmentand intimidationcampaign. The FBI first opened a file on Goldmanin April 1942, while conductinga backgroundsecurity investigationfor his war work at the Office of the Coordinatorof InterAffairs(OIAA).Goldman American receivedhis clearance, andthe FBI showedno interestin him untilhe andsix other State Departmentemployees were fired on 11 July 1947 Rider- a law which underthe provisionsof the McCarran the Secretary of State to fire any State empowered Departmentemployee believed to have radical political associations (WFO 77-23351-2).3 Anthropologist AlexanderLesser was one of the other six who lost their
O Yor, eAC, w

jobs in this purge. These employees were 'dismissed for securityreasons',butthey were allowedforpublicpurposes to 'resignwithoutprejudice'(WFO 77-23351 12/12/47). Following his dismissal from the State Department,the FBI undertook an extensive investigation of Goldman, compiling detailed biographicaland career data on him, his wife Hannah S. Goldman and both of their families. The FBI detailed Goldman's education at Brooklyn College (BS 1933), and ColumbiaUniversity (PhD 1941), noting that he spoke Spanish, Portuguese, French and German(77-23351-2), and chronicledhis wartimeservice at OIAA (1941-1945) and the State Department(19451947), noting with concern that 'Robert T. Miller III, Joseph B. Gregg and HannahGoldmanall worked in the same section of the OIAA'. The FBI's interestin Goldman and his associates was heightened because Elizabeth Bentley, a courier in the Silvermaster spy ring (which passed US State Departmentindustrialstatisticsto Soviet allies duringWorldWarII), had identifiedboth Miller and Gregg as Soviet spies; thus the FBI's suspicions were drawnto IrvingGoldman'swife Hannahas a possible subversive (see Theoharis2002).4 Elizabeth Bentley testified before Congress that Maurice Halperin had supplied her and her Soviet controllers with classified documents from the State Department- though Halperin denied any wrongdoing. The FBI noted that duringthe war Goldmanworked with
.Feptember 1, 194,8

K
FBI

Jirector,

t ?;

ITRVIVTCiGOLCX'AN

MTT ,t;CURITY

- C

The Bureau has received a numberof allegations concerning Co-nuanist infiltration and instruction being given at the Itarah : awrence College. in view of such allegatlione your f fice was requ!-sted to provide the Dureauwith a current Faculty Directory of
the ColleP'e in order that the Bureau indices could be checked for any derogatory informption concerning members of the Faculty.

A review of the J3ureaufiles the

is a pr:ofestsor of Anthropology at the Collemge,was one of the eleven ep!irtj~ent didmissed on June 23, 1947 under emn.loyees of the rtate

revealed the subject, who

cCarran rider .o the State Departmentappropriation bill.

The ;3ureau !eeres thnt your Office conduct, a most discreet and inquiry of subject to determine his background activities affiliations, and eag reliable shed Authority it granted to utilize You are fur~her sources of ipformation in con:ucting this inquiry. V. Lawren4t.. Sauthrized to contact former Special :gent 'illiara trustee of Sarah Lawrence Col lege in connection with thi- matter.?

Your letter

CjXe" any to cooperat indicated Mr. Lawrence expressed a willingness ii could be of the eollege investigation wh,.re his asslstfen" personnrl of value.

of June 29, 1948 captioned "Sarah Lawrence

If you ft'el additional contacts are necessary to fully dangerous to determine whether subject is dangerous or potentially the security of this country, you should first obtain ;ureau authori ty The identity of the individur l be contacted for such contacts. of information with a brief aninature tataemnt as to his reliabilitoy d in your request expected to be obtained h~i -hould be--incld frm for authority. 1h view of subject's
oct. discreet in conducti this Caition inquiry.-

at tlh
All

tolypge,
evat~able

you must be
information

:e
vr. Rom
!ii __

da t, developed contained in the fileas of tur aiditrsn 'ftce,in during the inquiry of subject, should be submitSsd to the ureau r Jrina report at the earliest possible dute. -/

),:vab

Fig. 2. An FBI report discussing thepossibility of Lawrenceto using William gather informationon Goldman,1 September1948.

o? ,. Q.W=1M

I INDEXED

Rf.CORGDR K

77

35

2004 VOL TODAY 20 NO4, AUGUST ANTHROPOLOGY

17

FEDERAL BUREAU INVESTIGATION OF

"mumrmmA

XlaIMYORKI

,m.,.aI00w1

l
b7C

ark

,,TORN3/ Or

aiamsrrr#
1/4

/di * ~t solm SOg

eawso

-...--.4=
SECenTr anMATTER C

tRM o GaXa2or

's parents were Russian born as is his wife. 3 Reason St., Brooklyn, Subject resides of Anthropology , ,, T/ and employed as professor llee bro at Sarh Lavrenc Coeg, llesNY. l,

Subject

born 9/2/11

at Brooklyn,

NT. 1

the University of Washington'sBoard of Regents. One regent attendingthis meeting told the FBI that: ... the Boardof Regents,especiallyduring presentdisthe turbed international is to situation, anxious removefromthe who to He faculty members canbeproven beCommunists. any that was in stated,however, greatdifficulty encountered prosufficient evidence Communist of affiliation warrant to ducing of due of which discharge aninstructor, to thetradition tenure an a at practically guarantees instructorpermanent position the afterhe hastaughtfor at leastthreeyears.(WFO University 100-4082-1) The regents asked the FBI and US Attorney's Office to that provideinformation would help determinethe identity of secret communists at the university - though the FBI was officially reluctantto sharetheirrecordson such associations with the regents. Sigmund Diamond has discovered similarcovert relationshipsduringthe 1950s between the FBI and members of Harvard'sBoard of Regents, as well as membersof the Yale corporation(Diamond 1992). Because private academic institutions have greater autonomythanpublic universities,the FBI's ability to perform any detailed investigation at private institutions depended on the co-operation of governing bodies. Few presidentsor boardsoffered resistance,most co-operating with such apparent enthusiasmthattheirmotivationsseem to be more sincerethancowardly.Thusthe realmeaningof Yale president Charles Seymour's declarationthat 'there will be no witch hunts at Yale because there will be no that witches', was simply an acknowledgement Yale'smisshapen conception of academic freedom did not include academic freedom for communists (Seymour quoted in Diamond 1992: 42).6 Academic freedomis more often an ideal than a reality, but there is little hope when membersof a college's board tender their services to collect informationon professors for secret police such as the FBI. During the post-war periodthe FBI was intenton limitingwho could teach, and what could be taught, on American campuses. The FBI saw nothing improperin investigatingand restrictingthe campus activities of professors, but such investigations threatenedthe academic freedom of all on campus and providedthe opportunityfor those with an axe to grindto spy and reporton colleagues they didn't like. When the FBI contactedSarahLawrenceboardmember WilliamLawrence,he reportedthat 'while he was anxious to cooperatewith the Bureauin any way possible, he was not in a position to assist to any great degree in [this] matterand felt thatfor him to make inquiriesat the college or for him to request the personnel files would be apt to create an embarrassing situationfor himself and the individuals involved' (WFO 77-23351-8 12/4/49). Lawrence recommended a trusted Sarah Lawrence employee who would carryout the FBI's investigation. The FBI was given access to Goldman's employment and education records. In investigating his educational background, the FBI noted that Franz Boas and Ruth Benedict had been his professors at ColumbiaUniversity, and added that their sources indicatedthat these individuals were 'well known as supporters of various Communistfrontorganizations'(NY 100-91710: 7). The FBI's reportrehashedthe informationgleaned from GeorgeMurdock's1949 informerletter.The FBI re-examined reportsof Goldman'swork with Halperin,Borah and anthropologist Willard Z. Park, and summarized Halperin's suspected involvement in Soviet espionage. Elizabeth Bentley had previously told the FBI that 'both Halperinand Parkhad indicatedto Bruce Mintonof"New Masses" that they desired to be placed in contact with some Communistsin the East7... Halperinand Parkwere to supplyto Bentley certaininformation which they had to access in their respective offices' (NY 100-91710: 5-6).
ANTHROPOLOGYTODAYVOL 20 NO 4, AUGUST 2004

ub until 6/23/47 when he was dismissed for has re security reasons. Inv*stigation
anlso whoa Were
seeurity

mpoyeby State Dept,fro /1/4z . with ly associated

dse4
RAI

G and JoSNPUft2WRW

eubjsse2

WN
by

Dept. for
sal GRsGreported by tate Subjeot Dept., was

by ELtZUAB

UTL to have engged in

0%'
OCFCnists. Sin ofI

Alnoth* S'
lk,,.

gradate stadent efAnthropology at Columbia Vhiversity and employedby Anthropolgy Dept. there when it was oIpletel dcmimat. by deeribed by informat aas the o t fanatieL* a Subetat Comumist of the group* Dep. at Colutbia. the Anthropologyr informant states subject active in Coemmniet group in the AmericanAnthropologioal
iAssociation,

emploed espionage kwhil 8ubjeot not known to BTLBY.

'

negative.

.lso neative. 4

Regular Communiet informts and Toukers P. i 1T. Bronxville

-C-

SRE a-u .. ,-y 1ireanm

y

"""U17 34

/-

RD C EII- A ;g

AJ . 194g 14

. ..........
Fig. 3. Coversheetfrom a 1949 FBI reportinvestigating Goldmanas a possible communist security risk.

..

.,.--'2

.. . ..

11. Moses Finkelsteinhad been a researchassistantfor Boas at Columbia- he later anglicized his name to M.I. Finley. He was identifiedas a communistby KarlWittfogel, and afterappearingbefore the subcommitteein McCarren 1952 he left his professorship at RutgersUniversity and took a position at Oxford, then Cambridge,and became a Britishcitizen. Finely was laterknightedfor his groundbreakinghistoricalwork at Cambridge work which shows a breadthof analysis and approachbetrayingan influence (see anthropological Goldfrank1977, Schrecker 1986, Price 2004a; Finley's FBI file is WFO100-116407). 12. HarrisonTweed was of the Chairman the Sarah LawrenceBoardfor 1952-53, and the othermembersof the Board(which included severalprominentCold War policy-makers)were: Charles SperryAndrews(SecretaryHaroldTaylor, Treasurer), Mrs BarbaraS. Alexander, Louis Barillet,Catherine DrinkerBower, CharlesP. Curtis,RobertDechert, MarshallField, BurtonP.

MauriceHalperin,andFBI surveillancerecordedHalperin meeting with Goldman for lunch and social visits during 1945 and 1946 (WFO 77-23351-2).' An FBI informer the reported detailsof a social visit betweenthe Goldmans, Halperin,and 'a CommunistPartymember', and the FBI noted with suspicionthatHalperinhadwrittena lettersupportingGoldman'seffortsto secure a job transfer. After his dismissal from the State Departmentin 1947, Ruth Benedict helped Goldmansecure a professorshipin rural New York state, at Sarah Lawrence College. But Hoover's FBI was not happy with the idea of letting Goldmansettle into a life of academia.As Goldmanbegan his new job, Hoover himself wrote to the New York Special Agent in Charge (SAC) that he had received reports that Sarah Lawrence College was the target of 'Communistinfiltrationand instruction',and that a crosscheck of the facultydirectorywith the FBI's files indicated Irving Goldman might be involved in such suspected activities (WFO 77-23351-6, 1/9/48). The FBI decided to make 'discreet'enquiriesregardingGoldman,and Hoover authorized the SAC 'to contact former Special Agent WilliamV. Lawrencetrusteeof SarahLawrenceCollege in connectionwith this matter'.Hoover noted thatthe SAC's previous correspondence 'indicated Mr. Lawrence expressed a willingness to cooperate in any investigation of the College personnelwhere his assistancecould be of value' (WFO 77-23351-6, 1/9/48). Contactbetween the FBI and universityboardmembers was a commonmeans of monitoringandharassingprofessors during this period. I have read numerousFBI files recording this type of informal, friendly, back-channel contact between board members. For example, Melville Jacobs'FBI file shows that in May 1941 the FBI's investigation of communist influences at the University of Washingtonled AssistantUS AttorneyGeraldShucklinto convene a conferencewith the FBI and some membersof

18

This report'spartially-redacted 'confidentialinformants reveals some informationpertainingto the identity page' of the informersquoted. Five informerswere used: one is identifiedas being from SarahLawrenceCollege; another was from Washington,DC; three informersare listed as being from Yale University (NY 100-91710). This suggests that Ralph Linton may have been the source of this description of Columbia's anthropology departmentas other records (see Price 2004a) find him making caustic reportson Columbia,and he was at Yale in 1949." The Bureat's opinion is requested ooncerning the Othershave remarkedon Marxistand communistinfluof interviewingOL4AN regarding sabllt ences at Columbia.For example, Julian Stewardrecalled Both G0LIAN andLJwere the iiii in 1969 that 'it was during the thirties that Columbia['s PRANZ BOASin the 1930 s. known by it is ormoePF Fossor that it has not been definit ely fowever, estabijha at out oointed anthropology department]became a communist cell far had associated or acquainted with O0LMKAN booeen more than people knew, and curiously,many adoptedthe the NY Telephone . l Conoaervn gpolitical and economic orientations yet remained thorDirectories listed threeas Dr. determined who formerly resided in ough-going relativists in their anthropological work' none are identical with a Dr. I =.Investigation numerous Washington, D.C. The indices t-1ontained (Stewardquoted in Price 2004a: 30-31). A review of these references on individuals named m As a result of this FBI investigation, Irving Goldman o0 been a had ever references failed to refloot if any The reco L Co upbia University contained was placed on the FBI's SecurityIndex on 12 April 1949: othnologists. I rdsa Unless advised to the T no record of a Dr. this index containeda list of Americanalien radicalsto be contrary, or until mor tIdentifiable information is furnished, attewnt to locate Dr. no further sacLon detainedduringperiodsof nationalcrisis.' Fouryears later ing taken oe Goldman appeared before an executive session of the Senate JudiciaryCommitteeInvestigatingthe Subversive by Regarding the outstanding lead set out NYCthe oahe has returned to IYO to reinterviewl where he testified Influence in the EducationProfession,'" nd arrangements have been madiei o contact her on or about before the committee's open hearingon 1 April 1953. 7/7/14, as sne will not be available until that time. At this hearing, Senate Chief Counsel Robert Morris 21 focused on Goldman'srelationshipswith anthropologists May Edel, Alexander Lesser and Willard Z. Park. To contemporaryeyes the most intriguing portion of Goldman testified that during the war he had analysed Fig. 4. An FBI report mentioningFBI concerns Goldman'sFBI file is a reportsummarizingan interview political developments in Latin America for the over Goldman'sconnections of Affairs (CIAA) at the invion 20 January1948 with an unidentifiedconfidentialFBI Coordinator Inter-American with Franz Boas, 7 December WillardParkand that he was later tation of anthropologist 1954. informerwho assigned to the Office of StrategicServices (OSS) and the of the outlined entire University's Department State Department.Goldmantestified that afterhe was dissetup [Columbia with ofAnthropology] its connections theinternal and security missed from the State Departmentas a security risk he Rockefeller to of theUnitedStates. According thisinformant, his approached formerprofessor,RuthBenedict and asked Foundation in about1934 madea substantial had grantto her if she knew of any teaching positions - and it was in Columbia for University basicresearch the socialsciences. of this money was used by the throughBenedict's supportthat Goldmanlandedhis posi$80,000 Approximately Fowler,Lloyd K. Garrison, fundsbeingadministered FrancisKeppel, Mrs William mainly tion at SarahLawrenceCollege in 1947. Morris'questions Anthropology Department, S. Ladd,WilliamV. eitherby then focused on how many students Goldman taught at Dr.RuthBenedict. to the informant, According by Lawrence,Bert James whoreceived ben- SarahLawrence- as if Morris were trying to gauge how the accident deliberation onlypeople or any Loewenberg,Mrs Stanley in efitfrom thesefunds, so farastheAnthropology Department many young minds he might be influencing. Mrs Lewis Perry, Martineau, of were members the Communist was concerned, either Party Goldmanspoke openly to the committeeof his six years Jr,CurtH. Reisinger,Mrs As of orstrong followers theCommunist Line. a result of Party WaltRostow, Walter (1936-1942) in the CommunistParty - he even provided sourceof funds,plus the fact thatthe this readilyavailable Rothschild,JohnV. Spachner, in could be used as a propaganda an account of his visit to party headquarters Colombia Mrs HaroldE. Talbott,Paul Anthropology Department Tishmanand Mrs Hibben to control while working in South America during the war. As he were the center, Communists mostanxious maintain Ziesing. Morris to of this department Columbia at University. According the detailedvariouspartyactivities he had undertaken, but informant therewas no question thatthe Anthropology refocused questions on his contact with anthropologists Afzal-Khan,F. 2003. Unholy had 'captured' theCommunist Franz Boas (and Boas' assistant Moses Finkelstein)," by Department beencompletely alliances:Zionism, US of Partyandin about1939 or 1940 consisted a very strong WillardPark,RuthBenedict, May Edel and Gene Weltfish and Islamic imperialism dominated same.This the fundamentalism. groupof peoplewho completely - stressing that the Committee's records indicated Edel informantstated it was not at all uncommonto walk into the CounterPunch,1 had taughtat the JeffersonSchool of Social Science in the December and of Department findtheentire laboratory theAnthropology http://www.counterpunch.o for front fall of 1944. Morristriedto get Goldmanto link Boas with coveredwith literature variousCommunist place rg/khan12012003.html such Leaguefor Peace and Goldman's Communist Party membership by asking organizations as the American AmericanCivil Liberties all and PeaceMobilization, of which leading questions designed to establish guilt by associaDemocracy theAmerican Union [ACLU] 2004. of material being sent out on the stationery Columbia tion. But Goldman was careful in his answers. When was 'ACLU letterto the Senate further This informant pointedout therewas no Morris asked: 'Were you a member of the Communist University. Health,Education,Labor line adherence theCommunist inas- Party while you were an assistant to Professor Boas at to of and Pensions Committee question thisgroup's first Columbia muchas thatwasthetimewhenthelineveered expressingacademic suddenly, University?' Goldman responded: 'We might freedomconcernsre: H.R. and afterGermany alliance secondly, aftertheRusso-German clarify that questionby saying that I was a memberof the 2077, the International stated thisgroup that attacked Russia. informant The faithfully Studiesin Higher these changes. CommunistParty from sometime in 1936, perhapslate in line throughout followed the Communist EducationAct of 2003'. this to included among Communist 1936, until 1942' (US Senate 1953: 730). According the informant, http://www.aclu.org/FreeS Morris questioned Goldman about Woodrow Wilson had Department, been the groupwithinthe Anthropology peech/FreeSpeech.cfm?ID of described definitely member Borah, Elizabeth Bentley, Duncan Chaplin Lee, Bernard as a whom informant the =14952&c=42 subject
ANTHROPOLOGYTODAYVOL 20 NO 4, AUGUST 2004 19

Letter, to Director, PBI T 105-6873 is Lawrence College, Brcnxville, NY. GOLdIAN a seourity i ndoa sugject of the NYO. He enoeared at hearings of the Senate sub-cosurittee on Subversive Intluence in the on sduestional frocess the 4/1// 3. H19 testimony appeared e on rages 721-738 of reoords of this hearing. furnished information regarding his background which reflected he had been assigned to 058 in 19145 and la ter was In 1936.37 emoloyed at the Dear-tment of State. University, while an he Assistant Anthrotologist at Oolsubi admitted being a member of the CP. In 1939, he went to South Ameriea where he visited headquarters of the CP at Colombia. In 194 t he returned to the USand joined the Brooklyn College unit of the C? and in 1942 left t he refused to answer any question' regarding CP, GOLMAN individuals known to him as members ct the Co. *He claimed that under the First Amendmentregarding the not to inform had a moral freedom of speech, irninaline on ethers who, to thb best of his knowledge, had done no harm to the US. Bureau file 77-23351 concerns QOLQAN.

of theCommunist although hadnolegalproof thesame. he Party The informant furtherexpressedthe opinionthat [Irving was a 'genuinezealot' and the 'most fanatic Goldman] of also the Communist thegroup.' informant included The among Communist suchindividuals Dr.Ruth Benedict, as F. Dr. group Franz Lesser others. 100-91710: and Boas,Alexander 7-8) (NY

Davey, M. 2004. An antiwar forumin Iowa brings federal subpoenas.New YorkTimes A14. 3 October: Diamond,S. 1992. Compromised campus: The collaborationof universities with the intelligence 1945-1955. New community, York:OxfordUniversity Press. E. Goldfrank, 1977. Notes on an undirectedlife. Queens College Publicationsin No. 3. New Anthropology, York:Queen'sCollege. Herken,G. 2002. Brotherhood of the bomb.New York: Henry,Hold & Company. Committeeon International Relationsin Anthropology [CIRA] 1950. International directoryof anthropologists. DC: CIRA. Washington, Goldman,I. 1941. The American Alkatchocarrier. 41: Anthropologist 396-418. - 1963. The Cubeo:Indians of the northwestAmazon. Urbana:Universityof Illinois Press. - 1975. Themouthof heaven: to An introduction Kwakiutl religious thought.New York: JohnWiley & Sons. D. Kirschner, 1995. Cold War exile: The unclosed case of MauriceHalperin. Columbia:University of MissouriPress. Liptak,A. 2003. The world: Defending those who defend New YorkTimes terrorists. 27 July:4,4. Nader,L. 1997. The phantom factor:Impactof the Cold In: Waron anthropology. The Cold Warand the university[editors unknown],pp. 107-146. New York:New Press. Patterson,T.J.2001. A social historyof anthropologyin the UnitedStates. Oxford: Berg. Peace, W.J.2004. Leslie A. White:Revolutionand evolutionin anthropology. Lincoln:University of NebraskaPress. Price, D.H. 2002. Interlopers and invited guests: On anthropology'switting and unwittinglinks to intelligence agencies. AnthropologyToday18(6): 16-21. - 2003. 'Paul Radin:Dodging one McCarthyism step ahead of Hoover'. Paperpresented in session on 'Anthropology at the dawn of the Cold War',AnnualMeeting of the AmericanAnthropological Association, Chicago, Illinois, 22 November. - 2004a. Threatening anthropology:TheFBI's surveillanceand repression of activist anthropologists. Durham,NC: Duke UniversityPress.

Fig. 5. TheNew YorkHerald s Tribune reporton the Sarah LawrenceBoard'ssupportof Goldman,as it appears in Goldman's FBIfile.

Raushenbush faculty and committees Redmont and Joseph B. Gregg. But Goldmanrefused to on college,DeanEsther and that freedom, concluded Mr. discuss the political affiliationsor beliefs of others.Morris appointments academic they Goldman refused thebasisof his personal 'on standard fair of also questionedGoldmanabouthis contactswith Maurice and of the and dealing notforthepurpose defying committee' - who Morrischaracterized 'a representative as Halperin to on reports his was not subject anyactionby them.Further, of the Communist Party in Texas and Oklahoma to character teaching and substantiated qualification the his for Mexico' (US Senate 1953: 726). Morris insisted that Tribune 19/5/53:15) (NYHerald faculty. Goldman identify Communist Party members. When Morrisasked 'Who was the leaderof the Communistunit Such a consideredand difficult decision deserves some at Columbia[University]while you were a memberof that commendationeven 50 years later.This was an era when a unit?' Goldmanreplied: 'I am sorry,as I told you and the professor's acknowledged past membership of the committee in executive session, I cannot as a matter of Communist Party was sufficient cause for termination principle reveal those names' (US Senate 1953: 735). without question - but the Board's position protected When pressed to elaborate on this 'principle' that pre- Goldman,the integrity of their academic institution,and vented him from revealing the names, Goldman replied: the academic freedomof scholarsat other institutions. 'The principle, I think, is a simple one which is that I SarahLawrenceCollege's Boardof Trustees'defence of cannot informon othersto get othersinto trouble,particu- Goldman'smoral action was a defeat for the committee's larly since I have no knowledge that any of these individ- and the FBI's efforts to expel Goldman from academia.12 uals had ever committedany offense against the security While the FBI had limited ability to cause Goldmantrouof the United States.So far as I know,they had violated no bles in the workplace, it continued to track his wherelaw' (US Senate 1953: 735). aboutsboth domesticallyand abroadduringthe 1950s and When Morriscounteredthat if no laws had been broken 60s (WFO 77-23351-16, WFO 77-23351-19). Goldman then this was 'the best reason' for Goldman to answer continuedto teach at SarahLawrenceuntil his retirement these questions,Goldmanreplied:'... I believe this would in 1980. be getting a lot of people into trouble,and I want to say I have come here to speak very franklyabout myself; have The Board's independence made no appeal to any legal immunities, and I simply The SenateCommitteeInvestigatingSubversiveInfluence cannot allow to rest on my conscience that I would get in the Educational Process took umbrage at Goldman's other people into troublejust to save myself some diffi- assertionthat honour and proprietydemandedthat while he talked freely about his own past party activities, he culty' (US Senate 1953: 735). The Committeestressedthat Goldmanwas not seeking should not discuss those of others. But the committee's protectionsunderthe FifthAmendment,and Goldmanand 'shocked' reaction appears to have been for show, as his lawyerclarifiedthathis protectionwas a moralone, not numerous other witnesses had already made this argua constitutionalone - apartfromthe protectionspresumed ment: perhaps the most articulate spokesperson for this underthe FirstAmendment.Goldman'slawyerarguedthat view was MauriceHalperin,who hadtestified the previous his client believed 'this moral right is his underthe First week. Unlike Goldman, Halperin asserted his Fifth Amendment of the Constitution of the United States involving freedom of speech ... not to inform on others when therehas been no violation of law' (US Senate 1953: 736). The Committee threatenedGoldman with prosecution for contempt of Congress and admonishedhis lawyer to c A auash LawmeneeWege ieas fiom arooklyn Colhgsad, %ho tsuht at anthropologist refusedbe. Columbian Unviverity, advise him of the gravity of his refusal to answer these fore the Senatetternal Becui-both~ nUtttuitoasand waa In, ~ to 1 tty subcommittee nam tfan-theOffce of StrategieServices, After conferringwith his lawyer, Goldmantold questions. in me amlociates the Oomma. eand Slate Departmentbefore the committee:'I must still standupon my principles,andI partywas letcontinueasdeemed of the 1947 to sarah lawrence in "qUtmhfed Coltng to a membet would like to add furtherthat the principle isn't worth by faculty" yesterday the board In considermgthe case of of ti ustees Paul Haivey Aron, thitty-one, standingon unless there is a problemin standingupon it. memberwhowho teaches modernEuropean Anothe tfaculty on historyanda course the SoThe fact thatI am underfire is no reasonfor abandoning a clfusedto answelsubcomztotee on vIet Union, the trustees said questomns grounds poslible of ation, the tsusteesthey "afuamed positionthat the principle'(US Senate 1953:737). The committeecountered belf-mU~mc of the prvilege of the while announced, exekciseauthatGoldmanrefused'to tell this Committeeorto the world at iesirned thoitmas the Yonkes, N Y Fifth Amendmentis nota college e considering his g0uondd supen ois a: disto the leaderof thatgroupwho mightwell be engagedin espihad l but that this actioncals any cae "befose eanolusion beenjeachedby the boaadand for a catefutlt- exammation onage at this very time, takingthe lives ofAmericanboys in a time when no unfi ableof the qualificationsof the at " teachet " action been had Korea...' (US Senate 1953: 737-738). This was the sort of cont In the c of Thispositionass taken oae talk thatcauseda numberof professorsto lose theirjobs. of ctiy by the A .ctft of fory-ta, s np before the artpology, whoappeared be- AmencanUmveritmes Newspaperstories on Goldman'sappearance foie the Senate subcomnuttee But the trustees noted that' on Apid I the trusteesnotedM Alton's committee stressedhis six years of partymembership,his resignation, submitthat he had testified he had tedorn Apil 8.,Afteendaysafter refusalto name otherpartymembers,and his links to indibeen a iembei of the Past he appeared the Senate befoe ptio to 1941and had had no allbommittee, came before a viduals accused of passing wartime documentsto Soviet atsciatie with it since conclusionwas reached Both 'Standard FairDealinr' the facultycommittee apat on allies. These articles promptedthe Board of Trustees at Thetiustees thaton thepontmnents on academic said and SarahLawrenceCollege to reconsiderGoldman'sposition of bya subcomiittee he bordTayloracceptthe raslnao at the institution.Earlierthat month a professorof history of trustees,Dr HaroldTaylor,Mr Arontaughtat Long ale piesidentof the college, Dean rumveasity before comm s at SarahLawrence,Paul HarveyAron, had resigned from and Esther Rtaushednbush facultySarahLtwrence 1948 in and on the college afterassertinghis FifthAmendmentprivileges conmmnitteesppomratments freedom, they con, to refuse to answer the questions of the Senate Internal acadeamc M1 Goldmanrecluded that fused "Onthe basis of his per. Security Subcommittee;his resignation occurred before sonal standaid of fair dealing andnot fot the puspose defyof the Boarddiscussedtakingany action againsthim. But the and tmgthe committtee* wasnot did not pressure Goldman to resign. Instead, the subjectto any action by them board Pu iepo on chaiacte thei, ts his trusteescarefullyconsideredhis testimonyandhis reasons and teachingaubstatrb his ated qualification the facutlty foi for refusing to discuss his past associations. After some who10-d1 w W'x'bdman considerationthe boardreported: thaton the basisof interviews reports a subcommittee and by '1'0t AF' "*0 '953 of the boardof trustees, Harold Dr. President the of Taylor,

Sarah Backs

Board Lawrence Defiant

Teacher

7/ 2-

20

ANTHROPOLOGYTODAYVOL 20 NO 4, AUGUST 2004

Fig. 6. A list of Sarah LawrenceCollege's Board of Trusteesduringthe 1950s.

92

Sarah Lawrence College

THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES'

lARRI SON TWEElo,A.B., L..LB. (1954), Chairc CHARLES SPERRY ANDREwS, SecretaS,-Treasurer HAROLD TAYLOR, B.A., \.A., Ph.D., ex-officio

an

New York Cityv Bronxville

Bronxile itarbor, Long Ios Roslyn Bedford Village Mai Bryn os

New York Cit;yL r

2004b. Academiaunder attack:Sketches for a new blacklist.In: Gonzilez, Roberto(ed.) Anthropologistsin thepublic sphere: Speakingout on war, peace, and Americanpower, pp. 243-246. Austin: Universityof Texas Press. Powers, R. 1987. Secrecy and power: The life ofJ. Edgar Hoover. New York:Free Press. Redfield, R. nd (ca. 1951). 'Communistsshouldteach in Americanuniversities'. Unpublishedpaper,Robert Redfield Papers,University of Chicago, Box 61, Folder 7. - 1951. The dangerousduty of the university.School and Society 74: 161-165. RR RobertRedfield Papers, Universityof Chicago LibrarySpecial Collections ResearchCenter. Rubel, P. & Rosman,A. 2003. Obituaryfor Irving Goldman(1911-2002). AmericanAnthropologist 105(4): 886-889. Schrecker,E. 1986. No ivory and the tower:McCarthyism universities.New York: OxfordUniversity Press. - 1998. Many are the crimes: in McCarthyism America. New York:Little, Brown. Stevenson,R.W. & Lichtblau, E. 2004. Ex-Congressional aid accused of workingwith Iraqiintelligence before war. New YorkTimes12 March: A14. Stocking,GW. n.d. 'Unfinished business:RobertGelston the Armstrong, Federal Bureauof Investigationand the historyof anthropology at Chicago andNigeria'. Unpublishedpaper. A.S. 1991. From the Theoharis, secretfiles ofJ. Edgar Hoover. Chicago:I.R. Dee. - 1999. A brief history of the FBI's role and powers. In: Theoharis,A. (ed.) The FBI:. A comprehensive reference guide, pp. 1-43. Phoenix: Oryx Press. - 2002. Chasingspies: How the FBlfailed in counterintelligencebut promotedthepolitics of in McCarthyism the Cold War years. Chicago:Ivan R. Dee. US Senate 1953. 'Subversive Influencein the Educational Process' Committeeof the United States Judiciary, Senate. 83'd Congress, first session. Hearingsbefore the Subcommitteeto Investigate of the Administration the InternalSecurityAct and OtherInternalSecurity Laws. 26, 27, 30 Marchand 1 April. Wirbel,L. 2003. Denver police keeping files on peace groups.CovertAction Quarterly75: 27-29.

S. MRs. BARBARA A.
MRS. CAsIIER1NE

ANI)LR (1952)
(1957)

Louis BARtLLET, A.M.2 A.B.,

DRINKER LOWEN

RoBERTv

Cla IAlRS P. CuK S,A.B., L LL.B. (ig 953) DLECERT, A.B., LI,,B. (1955)
MARSHALLt FIELD

Philtelphia

dered off of the narrowpath of culturallyacceptable critiques. Withoutfanfare,and with some risk, SarahLawrence's Boardof Trusteesresistedthe 'deliberatelygeneratedhysteria and terror' being spread by the FBI, House UnAmerican Activities Committee (HUAC), the Judiciary Committeeandothers.It was only throughacts of defiance such as those undertakenby SarahLawrence'sboardthat the predatorythreatsof McCarthyismwere thwarted.

(1958)

BuRTONP. FOWLER, A.M. ( 195) A.B., LLOYo K. GARRISON, A.B., LL.B., LL.D. (1952) FR.ANs KPPELL, A.B (.g)

Philad:lphia NewYorkCity
Camlbrilge

Lessons from the Goldman case

In post-9/11 America we are beginning to sense a reduction in academicfreedom,as a pall of orthodoxyfalls over the political discussions needed to examine past, present and futuretrajectoriesof America's relationshipwith the world. We do not yet have the public tribunalsassociated with McCarthyism worse, dismissalswithouttribunals, or, but unless we act to preserveour freedomthere is no guarantee that we will be free as academics in the future.The US Congressrecently adoptedlegislation (HR 3077) that threatensthe academic freedom of professorsworking in area studies and fields such as anthropology, requiring by what many fear will become a "'litmustest" of programs thatteach the acceptedgovernmentdogma'(ACLU 2004). If HR 3077 becomes law, then area study centres at US universitieswill be required be supportiveof US foreign to policy, or risk losing federal support funding. This is a frighteningprospect,and as FawziaAfzal-Khanobserves, 'it will curtail federal grants to Middle Eastern studies departmentsand programsacross US universities unless they can prove that their faculty are not inspiring "terrorist"thinking in their studentssimply by teaching them to criticallyexamine US foreign policy in the Middle East and elsewhere' (Afzal-Kahn2003). Even if such legislation does not spawn loyalty hearabouttheiracaings, with senatorsgrilling anthropologists demic and political beliefs in ways reminiscent of the McCarthyperiod, universitiesdependenton such funding would feel pressureto monitortheirprofessors in orderto preserve their funding, and professors would easily be coerced into self-censorship. Under such conditions few Americanprofessorswould receive the protectionoffered by Goldman's board of trustees, who believed that free speech and academic freedom are privileges, not rights, affordedto those willing to think in the face of prescribed doctrines. Critics of the Bush administration's policies are increasingly treatedin similar ways to suspected communists in the post-warperiod.Reportersand congressionalaides are arrested under charges of espionage (Stevenson & Lichtblau2004), participants anti-warcampusteach-ins in are investigated by secret Federal Grand Juries (Davey 2004), lawyers' contacts with clients accused of terrorist offences are curtailedand monitored(Liptak2003), peace activists are monitoredand harassedby the police and FBI (Wirbel 2003), and right-wing political groups are targeting outspokenscholars(Price 2004b). Are public show trials far behind? Worse, will colleagues inform on one another,resultingin employmentissues being resolved on the quiet, perhapswithout a public trial?

MRS. M WILLna S. LAon,A.B. (1953)

WILIAr V. LAWRSENCE,

NewYork Citor
Bronxtile Blronxville Loio Isnd ich, Lawrenceille New York City

A.B.

(1952)

A.B., A.'M., Ph.D. (,Ij)Y JRS. STANLEY MARTINEAU, A.B. (1957) East o.. ' MRs. L wIS PRERY, (1 9r5)5 jR. CuT- H-. REISINGER, AL.B (1958) Bs:RTJAMlES LOEwENBER.,

, Litt. B. (1953) WAL:TER ROTHscMru

JoNs V. SrPACuNLI (195.)S MRS. IHAROLD E, TALBOrIT (1954)

MRs. Ros0o, (B9-8) WALTI, A.., A.M.

Cambrid
NewYorkCiy

Iighlan d IPark, Illinois

P,AnUL B.S. TItANI, (954)

NwYork Cit,
Princ1ton

New York City

MRs. DHsIBEN ZIESINC, ALB. ( 197)

StandingCommittees
M'R. I'sWEED, Chiorman, Mis. ALLeVNDLeR, ,R. ANDREW S, MR. L]A-RILLLT, IR, FoWLEi, RMRS. P RRY, Ni. ROTHIcil I , MR. TANOaw, ex.officio 505 NOMENATI
MaRS.

/ALEXANDLER, ChaiFn7 ?au, MR. TAYLOR,ex-officio,

MR,TWEED, Ce-offcio

I[R. CURTIS, P..fRS, R.OSTO'W,

Dates indicate expiration of terms of office. Serving as Faculty Trustee duriog t.Ir, Loewltenberg leave of Faculty Trustee. Aluonoae Trustre "Parent Truste.

aisnc.

Amendmentright to silence and answeredfew questions. Halperin'sstatementto the committeeclearly outlinedthe issues confrontingprofessorsforced to testify before committees investigatingtheir politics and teaching. Halperin testified that such a professoris expectedfirst to state his politicalbeliefs and affiliations; second statethoseof others to withwhomhe hasbeenassocito to whichadeated; third, exposehimself accusations against quate defense is possible only through normal court to from the of fourth, refrain invoking Constitution procedures; the UnitedStatesto protect himselffromtheseabuses.If he of then passesall theseteststo thesatisfaction thecommittee, he is fitto return theclassroom. to What of teacher this?Hehasgivenuphisfreedom kind is of and he that thought conscience; hasconceded thestatehasthe to his to inference, power investigate mindand,by impeccable it. a to control He hasalsobecome stoolpigeon,a menace his and and of students colleagues, the mostreprehensible creatures. Letmeexplain further. All ourdemocratic in institutions anchored theconcept are in of theinviolability theindividual of as conscience, stated the FirstAmendment the Constitution the UnitedStates. of of with this conceptis that of academic Directlyassociated freedomwhich, among other things, means freedomof or teachers schoolsfromdictation, and intimidation, anyother formof coercion the statein matters to by pertaining political, and ideas. philosophical, religious who It is incumbent thoseteachers woulddefend acaupon to to wherever to demicfreedom refuse acquiesce, possible, an invasion thestateof one'sprivate beliefsandconvictions... by At a timewhenthe innercoreof ourConstitution of our and American are as democracy threatened neverbefore delibby and the eratelygenerated hysteria terror, FifthAmendment remains bulwark American a of that liberty mustbe defended and 1953:675) resolutely wholeheartedly. Senate (US

So where do we stand today? Past victories against intimidationwere won throughpublic challenges. Threats to the academic freedom of even a few scholars in one nationrepresentan issue of concernwith repercussionsfor scholars internationally.Boards and administrators with the power to hire and fire should be encouraged to act Halperin's use of the term 'terror'aptly characterized responsibly.Academics and membersof variousacademic the primarytechniqueof these committeesas they broad- boards must consider the (admittedlyrare) commendable cast messages of fear and intimidationand threatenedto example of SarahLawrence'sboardin standingup to inapdevastatethe personallives and careersof those who wan- propriatepressuresexertedby the FBI and Congress. ?
21

TODAY VOL20 NO4, AUGUST 2004 ANTHROPOLOGY