AQA AS CHEMISTRY CHEM1 REVISION NOTES 3.1.

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Bonding
Ionic Bonding
Occurs between metals and non-metals Involves transferal of electrons from metal atoms to non-metal atoms Positive and negative ions are formed Electrostatic attraction holds positive and negative ions together this is an ionic bond Always exist in a lattice structure Property of ionic compounds Do not conduct electricity when solid High melting/boiling points Brittle and shatter easily Dissolve in water Explanation
Ions are fixed in position by strong ionic bonds. When molten or dissolved in water, ions are free to move. Giant lattice structure held together by strong electrostatic attraction between ions which requires lots of energy to break

Small displacement causes contact between ions of same charge which repel and structure shatters Polar water molecules pull ions away from lattice and cause it to dissolve

Sodium chloride is an example of an ionic crystal with the above properties. (A crystal is just a solid with a regular arrangement) Definition of ionic bond: Electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions

Covalent Bonding

Occurs between non-metals Involves the sharing of outer electrons between atoms Can form simple covalent (molecular) or giant covalent (macromolecular) structures
Property of simple covalent compounds Do not conduct electricity

Low melting/boiling points

Explanation No ions or delocalized electrons involved. Weak intermolecular forces covalent bonds do not need to be broken.

Iodine is an example of a molecular crystal with the above properties. The iodine atoms pair up to form I2 molecules, held together by strong covalent bonds. Intermolecular forces between the I2 molecules hold the crystal together.

There are two main carbon macromolecular structures: graphite and diamond. These are allotropes of carbon. The carbon atoms in graphite are arranged in sheets of flat hexagons. The carbon atoms form three bonds each and the fourth outer electron of each carbon atom is delocalized.
Property of graphite Slippery/Soft (used in pencils)

Strong and lightweight Conducts electricity

High melting/boiling points Insoluble

Explanation Weak Van der Waals forces between layers that are easily broken. Layers are quite far apart which gives graphite a low density Graphite has 1 delocalized electron per carbon atom as it only forms three bonds so can conduct electricity along the hexagonal sheets. Strong covalent bonds in hexagon sheets sublimes at over 3900K. Covalent bonds too difficult to break

The carbon atoms in diamond are arranged in a tetrahedral shape. The carbon atoms form four bonds each, which gives it a rigid crystal lattice structure.
Property of diamond High melting point

Hard Does not conduct electricity Insoluble

Explanation Strong covalent bonds in crystal lattice structure. Rigid crystal structure All electrons are used in bonding, so no delocalized electrons to conduct electricity. Covalent bonds too difficult to break

A dative or co-ordinate bond is when one atom donates both the electrons in the covalent bond eg N to H+ in NH4+ (ammonium ion) Definition of covalent bond: A shared pair of electrons between two atoms

Diamond

Graphite

Metallic Bonding
Metal elements form giant metallic lattice structures Outer shell of electrons of each metal atom is delocalized Metal atoms become positive metal ions Positive metal ions attracted to delocalised electrons Closely packed metal ions among sea of delocalised electrons

Property of metals High melting/boiling points

Good electricity and heat conductors Malleable and ductile Strong Insoluble (except in liquid metals) Metallic bond strength:

Explanation Giant structure, strong attraction between ions and electrons- the more delocalised electrons per atom, higher mpt/bpt. Delocalised electrons conduct electricity and can pass kinetic energy to each other No bonds holding ions together and ions can slide over each other, new shape is retained. Electrostatic attractions between ions and electrons. Bigger charge and smaller ions increase strength. Strength of metallic bonds

Increases across a period as more electrons become delocalized Decreases down a group as the atomic radius increases

Magnesium is an example of a metallic crystal with the above properties. Each magnesium atom loses their 2 outer electrons to become Mg2+ ions.

Intermolecular Forces
There are three types of intermolecular force to know (in order of ascending strength): 1. Van der Waals forces (Induced dipole-dipole) 2. Permanent dipole-dipole forces 3. Hydrogen bonding Intermolecular Force Van der Waals Explanation Electrons are always moving around in charge clouds, which means that the distribution of charge is always changing; for example, at any one moment one part of the atom could be more negative than the other. This means the atom has a temporary dipole. This causes temporary dipoles on nearby atoms. This results in very weak electrostatic attractions between slightly oppositely charged atoms. Caused by electronegativity (see below). In bonds where one atom has a higher electronegativity than the other (eg HCl), the more electronegative atom will attract the bonding pair of electrons towards it, causing a shift in electron density and a polar bond. The more electronegative atom gets a delta minus charge () and the less electronegative a delta plus charge (+), which causes weak electrostatic forces between molecules of the compound. Only happens in molecules where hydrogen is bonded to fluorine, nitrogen or oxygen. These atoms are highly electronegative, and so attract the bonding electrons towards them in the covalent bond. The hydrogen atom then has a high charge density (because the atom is so small and positively charged), resulting in it forming strong intermolecular forces with F, N or O atoms on other molecules called hydrogen bonds. (Note: not stronger than a covalent bond). The hydrogen bonds present in ice are slightly less packed together than in water, meaning that ice is less dense than water and can float on the top of lakes, ponds etc. Definition of electronegativity: The relative ability to attract the bonding electrons in a covalent bond. Increases With Atom size Surface area (less branching = more surface area = more points of contact)

Permanent dipoledipole

Difference in electronegativity of atoms

Hydrogen Bonding

Shapes of Molecules
The shapes of molecules and angles between the different atoms can be predicted using electron pair repulsion theory. This uses two main principles:

1. Electron pairs around atoms repel each other 2. Therefore electron pairs will space themselves as far apart as possible from each other
The shape of the molecule and therefore its bond angles can be predicted by working out how many electron pairs surround the central atom and applying these principles. The table below summarizes the main shapes you need to know for the exam.

Electron Pairs 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 6

Bonding Pairs 2 3 2 4 3 2 5 6

Lone Pairs 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 0

Shape Linear Bent Tetrahedral Trigonal Pyramidal Bent Trigonal Bipyramidal Octahedral

Bond Angle 180 119 109.5 107 104.5 120, 90 90

Trigonal Planar 120

Remember that the biggest angles are between two lone pairs. Lone pair/bonding pair angles are the second biggest, and bonding pair/bonding pair angles the smallest.