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Transmission Media

Figure : UTP and STP cables

Figure :Transmission medium and physical layer Classes of transmission media

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. Twisted-Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Fiber-Optic Cable Twisted-pair cable

GUIDED MEDIA

Table : Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables

Figure: UTP CONNECTOR

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Types of Propagation modes (Optical Fiber Communication)

Figure : Coaxial cable

Table : Categories of coaxial cables

Figure : BNC connectors

Figure : Transmission Modes (OFC)

Figure : Bending of light ray

Figure : Optical fiber

Figure : Fiber construction

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Figure : Fiber-optic cable connectors

Figure : Propagation methods

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Type of Wireless Media: Radio Waves Microwaves Infrared

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Figure : Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

Table : Transmission Bands

Figure: Wireless transmission waves

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Switching

Figure : Omnidirectional antenna Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television, and paging systems.

Figure : Switched network Taxonomy of switched networks:

Figure: Unidirectional antennas Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs. Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using line-of-sight propagation.

A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected by physical links. A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links. However, each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link. Each link is normally divided into n channels by using FDM or TDM. A circuit-switched network is made of a set of switches connected by physical links, in which each link is divided into n channels.

CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS

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Figure : A trivial circuit-switched network In circuit switching, the resources need to be reserved during the setup phase; the resources remain dedicated for the entire duration of data transfer until the teardown phase.

As another example, consider a circuit-switched network that connects computers in two remote offices of a private company. The offices are connected using a T-1 line leased from a communication service provider. There are two 4 8 (4 inputs and 8 outputs) switches in this network. For each switch, four output ports are folded into the input ports to allow communication between computers in the same office. Four other output ports allow communication between the two offices. Figure above shows the situation.

As a trivial example, let us use a circuit-switched network to connect eight telephones in a small area. Communication is through 4-kHz voice channels. We assume that each link uses FDM to connect a maximum of two voice channels. The bandwidth of each link is then 8 kHz. Figure above shows the situation. Telephone 1 is connected to telephone 7; 2 to 5; 3 to 8; and 4 to 6. Of course the situation may change when new connections are made. The switch controls the connections.

Figure: Delay in Circuit Switch Network Switching at the physical layer in the traditional telephone network uses the circuitswitching approach.

DATAGRAM NETWORKS
In data communications, we need to send messages from one end system to another. If the message is going to pass through a packet-switched network, it needs to be divided into packets of fixed or variable size. The size of the packet is determined by the network and the governing protocol. In a packet-switched network, there is no resource reservation; resources are allocated on demand.

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A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram network. It has some characteristics of both.

VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS

Figure : A datagram network with four switches (routers)

Figure : Virtual-circuit network

<<< Figure : Virtual-circuit identifier

<<< Figure : Routing table in a datagram network A switch in a datagram network uses a routing table that is based on the destination address. The destination address in the header of a packet in a datagram network remains the same during the entire journey of the packet.

Figure : Delay in a datagram network Switching in the Internet is done by using the datagram approach to packet switching at the network layer.

Figure : Switch and tables in a virtual-circuit network

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Figure : Setup acknowledgment in a virtual-circuit network In virtual-circuit switching, all packets belonging to the same source and destination travel the same path; but the packets may arrive at the destination with different delays if resource allocation is on demand.

Figure : Source-to-destination data transfer in a virtual-circuit network

Figure : Delay in a virtual-circuit network Switching at the data link layer in a switched WAN is normally implemented by using virtual-circuit techniques. We use switches in circuit-switched and packet-switched networks. In this section, we discuss the structures of the switches used in each type of network.

STRUCTURE OF A SWITCH

Figure : Setup request in a virtual-circuit network

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Figure : Time-slot interchange Figure : Crossbar switch with three inputs and four outputs

Figure : Multistage switch In a three-stage switch, the total number of crosspoints is 2kN + k(N/n)2; which is much smaller than the number of crosspoints in a single-stage switch (N2).

Figure : Time-space-time switch

<<< Figure : Input port

<<< Figure : Output port

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Telephone networks use circuit switching. The telephone network had its beginnings in the late 1800s. The entire network, which is referred to as the plain old telephone system (POTS), was originally an analog system using analog signals to transmit voice.

TELEPHONE NETWORK

Local loop Trunk Trunk Tandem offices

End offices

Regional offices

The tasks of data transfer and signaling are separated in modern telephone networks: data transfer is done by one network, signaling by another.

Figure : Uploading and downloading in 56K modems

Figure : Modulation/demodulation (MODEM)

After traditional modems reached their peak data rate, telephone companies developed another technology, DSL, to provide higher-speed access to the Internet. Digital subscriber line (DSL) technology is one of the most promising for supporting high-speed digital communication over the existing local loops. ADSL is an asymmetric communication technology designed for residential users; it is not suitable for businesses. The existing local loops can handle bandwidths up to 1.1 MHz. ADSL is an adaptive technology. The system uses a data rate based on the condition of the local loop line.

DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE

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FIGURE: ASDL TECHNOLOGY

CABLE TV NETWORKS
The cable TV network started as a video service provider, but it has moved to the business of Internet access. Traditional Cable Connection is Unidirectional.

Figure : Traditional cable TV network

Figure : Hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) network

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