Ruidp Manual of Design

Module 2.
3: Project Design
Contents
1.0 Introduction .......................................................................................1 1.1 Steps for Design ................................................................................1 1.1.1 Demand Assessment.....................................................................1 1.1.2 Detailed Engineering Design...........................................................1 1.2 Standard Manuals for Reference...........................................................2 1.2.1 Road Projects ..............................................................................2 1.2.2 Water Supply Projects ...................................................................2 1.2.3 Sewerage Projects ........................................................................2 1.2.4 Solid waste Projects......................................................................2 2.0 Design of Road Projects .....................................................................2 2.1 Road width and Designs Traffic Volumes ...............................................3 2.2 Design Approach & Criteria..................................................................5 2.3 Design of Flexible Pavement ................................................................5 2.3.1 Traffic- CV/Day Annual traffic census 24 X 7.....................................5 2.3.2 Wheel loads.................................................................................5 2.3.3 Climate .......................................................................................5 2.3.4 Terrain Plain or Hilly .....................................................................6 2.3.5 Pavement Thickness .....................................................................6 2.4 Design Traffic ....................................................................................6 2.5 Design Period ....................................................................................8 2.6 CBR Value ........................................................................................8 2.7 Other Parameters ............................................................................ 13 2.7.1 Footpath ................................................................................... 13 2.7.2 Medians .................................................................................... 14 2.7.3 Verge ....................................................................................... 14 2.7.4 Parking Lanes ............................................................................ 14 2.7.5 Bus Bays................................................................................... 14 2.7.6 Kerb ......................................................................................... 15 2.8 Location and Space for Services ......................................................... 15 3.0 Design of Water Supply Projects.................................................... 18
3.1 Water Quality and Quantity ............................................................... 18 3.2 Design Period .................................................................................. 19 3.3 Population Forecast .......................................................................... 19 3.4 Per capita water Supply .................................................................... 19 3.5 Unit Operations of Water Treatment Plant............................................ 19 3.5.1 Aeration.................................................................................... 20
3.5.2 Coagulation and Flocculation ........................................................ 20 3.5.3 Clariflocculators ......................................................................... 22 3.5.4 Sedimentaion ............................................................................ 22 3.5.5 Filtration ................................................................................... 23 3.5.6 Slow Sand Filter ......................................................................... 23 3.5.7 Rapid Sand Filtration Plant........................................................... 25 3.5.8 Disinfection ............................................................................... 29 3.5.9 Water Treatment Plant ................................................................ 31 3.6 Quality Standards ............................................................................ 32 3.7 Distribution System.......................................................................... 36 3.7.1 Design of Pressure Pipelines......................................................... 36 3.7.2 Minimum Pipe Sizes .................................................................... 37 3.7.3 Pipe and Material of Construction.................................................. 37 3.7.4 Modified Hazen Williams Formula ............................................... 38 3.7.5 Residual Pressure ....................................................................... 39 3.8 Case Study of Rajkot City.................................................................. 40 4.0 Design Criteria of Sewerage Projects ............................................... 43 4.1 Objective ........................................................................................ 43 4.2 Main Considerations ......................................................................... 43 4.2.1 Engineering Considerations .......................................................... 43 4.2.2 Environmental Considerations ...................................................... 44 4.2.3 Process Considerations................................................................ 44 4.3 Design Period .................................................................................. 44 4.4 Population Forecast .......................................................................... 45 4.5 Sewage Generation .......................................................................... 45 4.5.1 Sewage flows............................................................................. 45 4.5.2 Peak factors .............................................................................. 45 4.5.3 Self Cleansing Velocities .............................................................. 46 4.6 Flow Characteristics ......................................................................... 47 4.6.1 Velocity at Minimum Flow ............................................................ 48 4.6.2 Minimum Size of Sewer ............................................................... 48 4.6.3 Minimum Depth of cover ............................................................. 48 4.6.4 Maximum Depth of Sewer Invert .................................................. 49 4.6.5 Ground Water Infiltration............................................................. 49 4.6.6 Sewer hydraulics ........................................................................ 49 4.6.7 Material of construction ............................................................... 50 4.6.8 Joints ....................................................................................... 50 4.6.9 Type of bedding ......................................................................... 51 4.7 Sewer Appurtenances ....................................................................... 56 4.7.1 Manholes .................................................................................. 56 4.7.2 Scrapper Manholes ..................................................................... 57 4.7.3 Ventilation Shafts ....................................................................... 57 4.8 Sewage Pumping Stations ................................................................. 57
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4.8.1 Types ....................................................................................... 57 4.8.2 Design Considerations................................................................. 57 4.9 Sewage Treatment Plant ................................................................... 58 4.9.1 Plant and Process Design Parameter.............................................. 58 4.9.2 Process Design Parameters .......................................................... 59 5.0 Storm Water Drainage...................................................................... 66 5.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 66 5.2 Design Methodology ......................................................................... 68 5.3 Design of under ground Strom Water Network ..................................... 69 5.3.1 Modified Rational Method............................................................. 69 5.3.2 Hydrograph Design Method.......................................................... 69 5.3.3 Simulation Method...................................................................... 69 6.0 Solid Waste Management ................................................................. 70 6.1 Key Features MSW Rules 2000 ........................................................ 70 6.2 Composition of waste ....................................................................... 70 6.3 Collection of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)........................................... 72 6.4 Segregation of Municipal Solid Waste.................................................. 72 6.5 Storage of Municipal Solid Waste........................................................ 73 6.6 Transport of Municipal Solid Waste ..................................................... 73 6.7 Processing of Municipal Solid Waste.................................................... 73 6.8 Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste ....................................................... 74 6.9 Design System for SWM.................................................................... 74 6.10 Street sweeping ............................................................................. 74 6.11 Secondary storage ......................................................................... 74 6.12 Sample Financial Estimates for implementation of Solid Waste Management Plan.................................................................................. 74 6.13 Design Criteria of Landfill Site Selection............................................. 78 6.14 Case Study of Rajkot DPR ............................................................... 79 6.15 Environmental Settings ................................................................... 81
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1.0 Introduction
Design is a crucial aspect and should be an integral part of all the stages of a project. In developing countries it has been experienced that evaluation reports cite problems of poor design owing to reasons such as: Inclusion of components that are inappropriate to local conditions Underestimation of resource needs and availability Inadequate or inappropriate specifications Lack of financial contingency planning Improper location etc.
1.1 Steps for Design

Detailed Engineering design of each component of the project based on demand assessment and norms & standards
1.1.1 Demand Assessment

Some of the components remain common for all the infrastructure services and form the base for all projections and assumptions e.g. population, land use, site suitability and availability and some of the components are service specific and to be analyzed separately e.g. distribution network, sources, norms and standards.
1.1.2 Detailed Engineering Design

Each component of the project needs to be designed as per norms and standards based on the demand assessment for the project. Consider the equation for population forecast. Existing population of area can be worked out by using the census data and based on demographic data of last 3 decades the future population to be served by the project should be calculated using a specified population forecasting method as per demand assessment module. Now considering the survey data results are obtained from investigation analysis by which each component can be designed as per the design criteria and norms in the respective manual approved by organization. The size and quantity should be worked out using standard equations specified in the respective manuals. From this size and quantity the cost of the component can be worked out.
Module 2.3: Project Design
1.2 Standard Manuals for Reference

1.2.1 Road Projects
Manual of Ministry of Road Transport and Highway (MORTH) Indian Road Congress (IRC codes) IRC 86-1983 Geometric Design for Urban Roads in Plains. IRC 81-1997 Flexible Road Pavements BIS code 2720 various parts for tests on soils BIS Code 2386 various parts for tests on aggregates
1.2.2 Water Supply Projects

Manual on Water Supply and Treatment Plant third edition revised - 1999 constituted by CPHEEO- Central Public Health and Environment Engineering Organization, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi, G.O.I
1.2.3 Sewerage Projects

Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment - second edition 1993 constituted by CPHEEO- Central Public Health and Environment Engineering Organization, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi, G.O.I
1.2.4 Solid waste Projects

Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 Manual on Solid Waste Management- First edition 2000 constituted by CPHEEO- Central Public Health and Environment Engineering Organization, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi, G.O.I
2.0 Design of Road Projects

In urban areas road development takes place along existing roads, requiring enhancement of capacity of existing roads. The road alignments are planned at the time of preparation of DP Development plans. Development takes place in such a way that carving out a new alignment becomes practically impossible. Thus only alternative is to use available Right of Way and provide capacity in phases. Ultimately all the capacity is utilised and a bypass to traffic is required. Thus enough ROW must be reserved / provided for in the development plan itself looking to the future requirements.
CEPT, Ahmedabad
JnNURM - Rapid Training Programme Preparation of DPRs
The width and layout of urban road cross-sections depend on many factors, the chief amongst them being the classification of road, design speed and the volume of traffic expected. Other considerations are requirements of parking lanes, busbays, loading-unloading bays, occurrences of access points, volume of pedestrians and cyclists, width of drains, location of sewer lines, electricity cables and other public utility services. Actual width of each element should be based on traffic volumes and other functional requirements explained in parts 6.2.1 through 6.2.11 of IRC 86-1983.
2.1 Road width and Designs Traffic Volumes

The road width carriage way, should be designed to accommodate the design traffic volume assessed in demand assessment. This is restricted by Right of Way provided in the development plan. Design traffic is arrived at from traffic surveys and socio economic profile of area influenced by the road. The road should be designed to accommodate the peak traffic volume computed for the end of design life. A design period of 15-20 years should be adopted for arterials sub-arterial and 10-15 years should be adopted for local and Collector Street. A higher design period should be taken for small towns and lower period for large cities. For high volume streets and busy intersections, peak hour volumes should be used to determine the width of road. The design of main traffic routes in built-up areas should be based on peak hour demands and not as in rural area on average daily traffic. Right of Way recommended for the various categories of urban roads are given in table 2.1 Table 2.1: Recommended Road Widths Classification
Arterial Sub-Arterial Collector streets Local street
Source: IRC 86 -1983
Recommended road width in meters

50-60 30-40 20-30 10-30
The Equivalency factors for the passenger car unit (PCU) are shown in the table 2.2 below.
Table 2.2: Equivalency factors for Vehicles Sr. No.

1 2
Vehicle Type
Passenger car, tempo, auto, jeep, vans, or agricultural tractor Truck, bus, agricultural tractor-trailer
Equivalency Factor
1.0 3.0
CEPT, Ahmedabad
Sr. No.
3 4 5 6 7
Vehicle Type
Motor-cycle, scooter and cycle Cycle-rickshaw Horse drawn vehicle Bullock cart Hand-cart
Equivalency Factor
0.5 1.5 4.0 5.0 6.0
Source: IRC 19; 2001
Tentative Capacities of Urban Roads between Intersections are presented in table 2.3 below. Table 2.3: Tentative Capacities of Urban Roads No of traffic lanes and widths Traffic flow Capacity in PCUs per hour for various traffic conditions
Roads with no frontage access, standing vehicles, little traffic 2 lane (7-7.5 m) 3-lanes 4-lane (14 m) 6-Lane (21 m)
Road
with
Roads with free frontage access, vehicles heavy traffic 1200 750 2000 2400 2000 2200 3000 parked and cross
no very cross
frontage access but no standing vehicle and high capacity intersections 1500 1200 2500 3000 2500 2500 4200
One way Two way One way One way Two way One way Two way)
2400 1500 3600 4500 4000 3600 6000
Carriageway widths recommended are shown in table 2.4 below. (IRC 86; 1983) Table 2.4: Recommended Carriageway Widths Description Single lane without kerbs 2-lane without kerbs 2- lane with kerbs 3-lane with or without kerbs 4-lane with or without kerbs 6- lane with or without kerbs
Source: IRC 86; 1983 Note: 1. For access roads to residential areas, a lower lane width of 3 m is permissible.
Width (meters) 3.5 7.00 7.5 10.5 / 11.0 14.0 21.0
Minimum width of a kerbed urban road is 5.5 m including allowance for a stalled vehicle.
CEPT, Ahmedabad
2.2 Design Approach & Criteria

Carriage of the road mostly can mostly be design by the following three layer structure Bituminous surface layer(s) Granular Base Granular Sub base
This structure rests on sub-grade which in turn rests on natural ground.
2.3 Design of Flexible Pavement

The following sub sections describe the various variables and parameters involved in design of flexible pavement of road as per IRC 37 - 2001.
2.3.1 Traffic- CV/Day Annual traffic census 24 X 7

For structural design, commercial vehicles are considered. Thus vehicle of gross weight more than 8 tonnes load are considered in design. This is arrived at from classified volume count.
2.3.2 Wheel loads

Urban traffic is heterogeneous. There is a wide spectrum of axle loads plying on these roads. For design purpose it is simplified in terms of cumulative number of standard axle (8160 kg) to be carried by the pavement during the design life. This is expressed in terms of million standard axles or msa.
2.3.3 Climate
Temperature is an important factor affecting the performance of Flexible pavement (Hot or Cold). Most of our country comes under hot climate. In urban scenario, the traffic is heterogeneous. There is sizable bicycle traffic. There is sizable pedestrian traffic. The demand for road can be estimated by a classified volume count of traffic. This survey should be conducted for seven days throughout 24 x 7 surveys. All vehicle categories including non motorised traffic like bicycles, animal driven carts etc. There should be a separate pedestrian survey. An Origin Destination (OD) survey to estimate preference for a particular route may also be carried out. Locations attracting heavy traffic demand such as Government offices, commercial centres, hospitals, educational institutes, religious and other places of interest may be marked and traffic generated should be estimated. A detailed socio economic study is required for understanding and future trends. Planning must provide for future requirements. It is usually found that the future projections are overtaken by faster developments, people start development faster than estimated years the grade of bitumen to be used in surface layers. The grade of bitumen in urban scenario, the traffic is heterogeneous. There is sizable bicycle traffic. There is sizable pedestrian traffic. The demand for road can be estimated by a classified volume count of traffic. This survey should be
CEPT, Ahmedabad
conducted for seven days throughout 24 x 7 surveys. All vehicle categories including non motorised traffic like bicycles, animal driven carts etc. There should be a separate pedestrian survey. An Origin Destination (OD) survey to estimate preference for a particular route may also be carried out. Locations attracting heavy traffic demand such as Government offices, commercial centres, hospitals, and educational institutes, religious and other places of interest may be marked and traffic generated should be estimated. A detailed socio economic study is required for understanding and future trends. Planning must provide for future requirements. It is usually found that the future projections are overtaken by faster developments. Considerations for different climate are given in annexure 6 of IRC 37 2001.
2.3.4 Terrain Plain or Hilly

The terrain is dependent on natural gradient available. When natural gradient is up to 10 percent, it is known as plain terrain. When natural gradient is between 10 to 25 percent, terrain is known as rolling. When natural gradient is between 25 to 60 percent, terrain is known as hilly. And when natural gradient is more than 60 percent, terrain is known as steep terrain.
2.3.5 Pavement Thickness

Pavement Thickness Composition can be decided by using following chart presented in figure 2.1 Figure 2.1: Pavement thickness Design Chart for Traffic1 1-10 msa
2.4 Design Traffic
CEPT, Ahmedabad
Computation of design Traffic In terms of cumulative number of standard axle to be carried by the pavement during design life. N = {365 X r Where N = The cumulative number of standard axles to be catered for in design in terms of million standard axles - msa. A = Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction duly modified as shown below. D = Lane distribution factor F = Vehicle damage factor, VDF n = Design life in years r = Annual growth rate of commercial vehicles { this can be taken as 7.5% if no data is available} (1+r)n 1} xAxDxF
A = P (1 + r)x
Where, P = Number of commercial vehicle as per last count X = Number of years between the year of last count and the year of completion of construction
D = Lane distribution factor

It is the distribution of commercial traffic over the carriageway. It should be considered by deciding the lane of the road. Following values should be taken for Lane distribution factor. Table 2.5: Road Sections Description
Single Lane Road Two Lane Single Carriageway Two Lane Double Carriageway Four Lane single Carriageway Four Lane Double Carriageway
Source: IRC 37
Lane 1.00 0.75 0.40 0.40 0.45
Distribution
Factor (D)
F = Vehicle damage factor (VDF). It is a multiplier to convert the number of CV of different axle load and axle configuration to the number of standard axle load repetition. VDF depends on vehicle configuration, axle load, terrain, type of road. Where sufficient information of axle load is not available then the VDF value considered are presented in table 2.6
CEPT, Ahmedabad
Table 2.6: Vehicle Damage Factor Initial Traffic volume in terms of Commercial Vehicles per Day 0-150 150-1500 More than 1500
Source: IRC 37
Terrain Rolling / Plain 1.5 3.5 4.5 Hilly 0.5 1.5 2.5
In view of the concept of cumulative axle loads, it is now possible to design a flexible pavement for a definite period.
2.5 Design Period

A design period of 15-20 years should be adopted for arterials sub-arterial and 10-15 years should be adopted for local and Collector Street. A higher design period should be taken for small towns and lower period for large cities. For high volume streets and busy intersections, peak hour volumes should be used to determine the width of road... For Arterial & Sub arterial 15-20 years For collector & local road 10-15 years Expressway and Urban Roads - 20 Years N H & SH 15 Years Other Roads 10 15 Years
r - Traffic Growth: From the datas available for the last five or ten years traffic census traffic growth can be determined. In absence of adequate data, an average value of 7.5 % per annum growth rate may be adopted.
2.6 CBR Value

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Value as per IS 2720 (Part-XVI): CBR is an indirect measure of the stability of sub-grade i. e. the capacity to resist deformations under wheel loads. CBR value is determined by conducting the CBR test on specimen in laboratory as per the procedure laid down in IS 2720 Part- XVI It is basically a penetration test. The CBR test is carried out in standard CBR apparatus & the standard test procedure prescribed in accordance with IS 2720(part-XVI) as per the requirement.
CEPT, Ahmedabad
The material is statically compacted in three layers at MDD & OMC determined by a standard proctor test as per IS 2720 part:7 for light compaction or IS2720- part:8 for heavy compaction as per the requirement.
The sample is subjected to 4 days soaking. There after a plunger of 50 mm dia. is allowed to penetrate in the material at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. The required loads required causing 2.5 mm & 5.0 mm penetrations are recorded. These loads are then expressed as percentages of standard/loads, which are the loads for corresponding penetrations in standard crushed stone aggregates.
Higher of two values is adopted as CBR value.
As per the IS requirements three samples shall have to be tested for CBR and the average CBR value of three samples is taken as final CBR provided the CBR value of all three samples are within the permissible limit of variation. CBR (Percent)
5 5 10 10 30 31 and above
Maximum Variation in CBR Values +1 +2 +3 +5
Source: IRC 37; 1998 Fig2.2: PAVEMENT THICKNESS DESIGN CHART FOR TRAFFIC 1-10 MSA
CEPT, Ahmedabad
Table2.7: Recommended Design for Traffic range 1-10 msa 1

msa given CBR Value for Total Thickness (mm)
PAVEMENT COMPOSITION Bituminous Surfacing Wearing Course ( mm ) Binder Course ( mm )

225 50 BM 60 BM 60 DBM 90 DBM 225 250 250 250 225 50 BM 60 BM 70 DBM 100 DBM 225 250 250 250 225 50 BM 50 BM 60 DBM 80 DBM 225 250 250 250 225 50 BM 50 BM 55 DBM 70 DBM 225 250 250 250 225 50 BM 50 BM 50 DBM 65 DBM 225 250 250 250 225 50 BM 50 BM 50 DBM 60 DBM 225 250 250 250 435 335 335 335 380 435 440 440 450 460 255 265 280 285 330 205 215 230 250 300 165 175 190 210 260 150 150 160 180 230 Base Course Sub base Course
CBR 3 % 1 2 3 5 10 CBR 2% 1 2 3 5 10 CBR 4% 1 2 3 5 10 CBR 5% 1 2 3 5 10 CBR 6% 1 2 3 5 10 CBR 7% 1 2 3 5 10 CBR 8% 375 425 460 505 580 20 PC 20 PC 20 PC 25 SDBC 40 BC 390 450 490 535 615 20 PC 20 PC 20 PC 25 SDBC 40 BC 430 490 530 580 660 20 PC 20 PC 20 PC 25 SDBC 40 BC 480 540 580 620 700 20 PC 20 PC 20 PC 25 SDBC 40 BC 660 715 750 795 850 20 PC 20 PC 20 PC 25 SDBC 40 BC 550 610 645 690 760 20 PC 20 PC 20 PC 25 SDBC 40 BC
CEPT, Ahmedabad
10
msa given CBR Value
for Total Thickness (mm)
PAVEMENT COMPOSITION Bituminous Surfacing Wearing Course ( mm )

20 PC 20 PC 20 PC 25 SDBC 40 BC 20 PC 20 PC 20 PC 25 SDBC 40 BC 50 BM 50 BM 50 DBM 50 DBM 50 BM 50 BM 50 DBM 60 DBM Base Course Sub base Course
Binder Course ( mm )
1 2 3 5 10 1 2 3 5 10
375 425 450 475 550 375 425 450 475 540
225 225 250 250 250 225 225 250 250 250
150 150 150 150 200 150 150 150 150 200
CBR 9 % & 10 %
Fig 2.3: pavement thickness design chart for traffic 10-150 msa
CEPT, Ahmedabad
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Table 2.8: Recommended Design for Traffic range 10 150 msa

msa for given CBR Value Total Thickness (mm) PAVEMENT COMPOSITION Bituminous Surfacing BC (mm) CBR 2% 10 20 30 50 100 150 CBR 3% 10 20 30 50 100 150 CBR 4% 10 20 30 50 100 150 CBR 5% 10 20 30 50 100 150 CBR 6 % 10 20 30 50 100 150 CBR 7 % 10 20 30 50 100 150 CBR 8 % 10 20 30 50 550 575 590 610 40 40 40 40 60 85 100 120 Base = 250 Sub base = 200 580 610 630 650 675 695 40 40 40 40 50 50 60 90 110 130 145 165 Base = 250 Sub base = 230 615 640 655 675 700 720 40 40 40 40 50 50 65 90 105 125 140 160 Base = 250 Sub base = 260 660 690 710 730 750 770 40 40 40 40 50 50 70 100 120 140 150 170 Base = 250 Sub base = 300 700 730 750 780 800 820 40 40 40 40 50 50 80 110 130 160 170 190 Base = 250 Sub base = 330 760 790 810 830 860 890 40 40 40 40 50 50 90 120 140 160 180 210 Base = 250 Sub base = 380 850 880 900 925 955 975 40 40 40 40 50 50 100 130 150 175 195 215 Base = 250 Sub base = 460 DBM (mm)
CEPT, Ahmedabad
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msa for given CBR Value
Total Thickness (mm) 640 660 540 570 585 605 635 655 540 565 580 600 630 650
PAVEMENT COMPOSITION Bituminous Surfacing BC (mm) 50 50 40 40 40 40 50 50 40 40 40 40 50 50 DBM (mm) 140 160 50 80 95 115 135 155 50 75 90 110 130 150 Base = 250 Sub base = 200 Base = 250 Sub base = 200
100 150 CBR 9 % 10 20 30 50 100 150 CBR 10 % 10 20 30 50 100 150
2.7 Other Parameters

Following other parts of the roads should be kept in mind while designing the Road.
2.7.1 Footpath
The minimum width of footpath should be 1.5 meters. They should have well maintained surface with cross fall neither so flat as to be difficult to drain nor so steep as to be dangerous to walk upon. The cross fall within the range of 2.5 to 3 % should meet requirement
Table 2.9: Required Road Widths Number of Persons per Hour.

1200 2400 3600 4800 6000
Reqd. Width Footpath (m)

1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0
Of
800 1600 2400 3200 4000
CEPT, Ahmedabad
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2.7.2 Medians
Width of median is dictated by a variety of conditions. Widths will depend on the available right-of-way, terrain, turn lanes, drainage and determinants. Wide medians are preferred where space and cost considerations permit. Minimum widths of median at intersections to accomplish various purposes should be as follows:(i) Pedestrian refuge;(ii) Median lane for protection of vehicle making right turn, 4.0 m but 7.5 m is recommended; (iii) 9 to 12m is required for Uturns. Absolute minimum width of median in urban areas is 1.2m; a desirable minimums 5m. As far as possible, the median should be of uniform width in a particular section. However, where changes are unavoidable, a transition of 1 m to 15 to 1 in 20 must be provided.
2.7.3 Verge
Verges are required between carriage way and property line not only to accommodate. Lighting columns, traffic signs, underground services etc., but also to provide appropriate clearance to ensure proper vehicle placement and development of full carriageway capacity. Where road width is restricted, full width between carriage way and property line should be paved and used for pedestrian sidewalk/cycle track. Where possible, a minimum verge of 1 m width should be kept. They should be suitably levelled, trimmed and provided with a cross fall of 5 per cent if turned and 3 per cent if cobbled or surface dressed. This should be increased if poles, kerb-height, or excessive cross fall discourage parking close to the kerb and also where either parked vehicles frequently overlap on to the adjacent traffic lane or the parking lane is likely to be used as a peak hour traffic lane.
2.7.4 Parking Lanes

Parking lanes may be provided on all sub- arterials and collector streets in business and shopping areas. Parallel kerb parking should be preferred. Parking lane width for parallel parking should be 3 m which may be reduced to 2.5 m where available space is limited. Where additional parking capacity is desired and sufficient carriageway width is available, angle parking may be adopted.
2.7.5 Bus Bays

Busbays should not be located too close to intersections. It is desirable that they are located 75 m from the intersection on either side preferably on the further side of the intersection. Busbays should be provided preferably by recessing the kerb to avoid conflict with moving traffic. The length of the recess should be 15 m for single bus stop with increased of 15 m for each extra bus for multiple bus stops. The taper should be desirably 1:8 but not less than 1:6. the depth of the recess should be 4.5 m
CEPT, Ahmedabad
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for single bus stop and 7 m for multiple bus stop. Suitable arrangement should be made for drainage of surface water from busbays. Sufficient footpath should be ensured behind the busbays.
2.7.6 Kerb
It is desirable that roads in urban areas are provided with kerbs. Kerbs may be barrier type, semi barrier type or mountable type. Appropriate situations for use of each type are indicated below: Barrier type : Built up areas adjacent to footpaths with considerable pedestrian traffic. Semi-barrier type : on the periphery of the roadway where Pedestrian traffic is light and a barrier type could to reduce traffic capacity. Mountable type: within the roadway at canalization sections medians outer separators and raised medians on bridges. Each figure shows two varieties of each type of kerb with gutter and without gutter. Kerbs with gutter should always be used at drainage edges of pavement.
2.8 Location and Space for Services

Location of the various services will depends on several factors such as class of road, the land width available, the size and type of utility lines to be accommodated and other related factors. Generally, a width of 5 m for services on either side of the road will be adequate in most cases. Other considerations needing attention in the location of utility services are given below. Utility lines should be located such that it permits maintenance of the lines with minimum interference to road traffic. Utility lines should be laid on uniform alignment parallel to the road centre line. Accommodation of Utility Lines across Roads: Several methods are available for erecting for crossing depending on situation, but in all cases the following principles should be kept in mind. In case of all major roads, the service lines shall be taken though ducts of sufficient size and strength in order to facilitate future repairs addition of lines, etc. without resorting to cutting open of the road. In certain situation such as crossing of a minor road, service line may be installed without encasement. The minimum cover on top of the service line should be 1.2m.
CEPT, Ahmedabad
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Illustration: In Ahmedabad city Navrangpura area is in plane terrain. The soil available is having California Bearing Ratio 5 %. Traffic surveys have been carried out on nearby road. Traffic count has been yielded a PCU figure of 3500 in the peak hours and a Commercial Vehicle per Day (CVD) figure of 500. It is expected that about 2000 PCU and 200 number of CVD are likely to be diverted to the new proposed road. The road will have all residence opening directly on to the road (free access). As there are residential units already, parking can not be prohibited. There is cross traffic traffic moving in al directions. The socioeconomic surveys have indicated that the traffic growth rate on the new proposed road could be 7.5%. AMC has decided to construct new road within two years and the design life of the road is 10 year. What will be the ROW / CW and Crust thickness of the new proposed road? The problem could be solved as below. First the geometrical design. As this is an urban arterial road the ROW is to be 60 meters. (as per table no. 2.1 ) As PCU on new road is 2000 the CW is to be four lane two way (as per table no.2.3 ) Crust design Present traffic 200 CVD A = P(1+r)n A= 200(1+ 7.5/100)2 R= 7.5% Construction period = 2 years A = 200(1.155625) A= 231.25 Say 230 CVD N = 365x {(1+r)n - 1}x A x D x F r N = 365 x {(1 + 7.5/100)10 1} x 230 x 0.40 x 3.5 7.5/100 D = 0.4 from table 2.5 F = 3.5 from table 2.6 N = 365 {2.06 1) x 322 .075 N = 1661090 Standard Axles N = 1661090 / 10,00,000 N = 1.6 msa Million standard axles
CEPT, Ahmedabad
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Say 2 msa CBR = 5% Total crust thickness = 490 mm Sub base course = 215 mm Base course = 225 mm Surfacing course = 50 mm BM + 20 mm PC Some typical road cross sections for widening, construction and overlay are presented below.
CEPT, Ahmedabad
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3.0 Design of Water Supply Projects

The planning of water supply systems is based on basic design parameters such as water quality and quantity, design period, area and population to be served, per capita rate of water supply, water needs for other purposes in the area, pressures requirements for piped water supply, water quality standards, nature and location of facilities to be provided, the utilization of centralized or multiple points of treatment facilities and points of water supply intake and waste water disposal. The following basic design parameters should be kept in mind before designing this component
3.1 Water Quality and Quantity

The water to be used for urban water supply systems may vary both in quantity and quality as well as in the degree of treatment required; seasonally, monthly, daily and sometimes even hourly. Water quantity may be managed by followings method. (a) Water Conservation Water conservation has to be aimed at optimal use of available water resources; prevention and control of wastage of water and effective demand management. (b) Increased water availability and supply & demand management Increase of water availability can be achieved through augmentation of water resources by storing rainwater on the surface or below the surface. Water supply management aims at improving the supply by minimizing losses and wastage and unaccounted for water (UFW) in the transmission mains and distribution system. Water demand management involves measures which aim at reducing water demand by optimal utilization of water supplies for all essential and desirable needs.
CEPT, Ahmedabad
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3.2 Design Period

For design period please refer Module 2.2: Demand assessment
3.3 Population Forecast

For population forecast please refer Module 2.2: Demand assessment
3.4 Per capita water Supply

For per capita water supply please refer Module 2.2: Demand assessment
3.5 Unit Operations of Water Treatment Plant

The method of treatment to be employed depends on the nature of raw water constituents and the desired standards of water quality. The unit operations in water treatment include aeration, flocculation (rapid and slow mixing) and clarification, filtration, disinfection, softening, deferrization, deflouridation and water conditioning and many different combinations of these to suit these requirements.
Figure 3.1: Typical Flow Diagram of a Water Treatment Plant
In case of ground water and surface water with storage which are well protected, where the water has turbidity below 10 NTU and they are free from colour and odour, plain disinfection by chlorination is adopted before supply. In surface
CEPT, Ahmedabad
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waters with turbidity not exceeding 50 NTU and where sufficient area is available, plain sedimentation followed by slow sand filtration and disinfection are practiced.
3.5.1 Aeration
Aeration is necessary to promote the exchange of gases between the water and the atmosphere.
3.5.2 Coagulation and Flocculation

The purpose of coagulation and flocculation is to remove particulate impurities, especially non settleable solids (particularly colloids) and colour from the water being treated. Non-settleable particles in water are removed by the use of coagulating chemicals. The most commonly used coagulant is ferric alum. However, Poly Aluminium Chloride (PAC) is also used as a coagulant. The advantages of PAC are i) it gets properly dispersed, ii) it does not have any insoluble residue, iii) it does not affect the settling tanks, iv) it is more effective than alum v) it requires less space (may be about 50%). The disadvantage of PAC is that it is less effective in removal of colour. Flocculation basin The objective of a flocculation basin is to produce a settled water of low turbidity which in turn will allow reasonably long filter runs. Following points should be considered during the operation of the flocculation basins. Where head loss through the plant is to be conserved as much as possible and where the flow exceeds 300 m3 / hr, mechanical mixing which is also known as flesh mixing is desirable. Multiple units may be provided for large plants. Normally a detention time of 30 to 60 seconds is adopted in the flash mixer. Head loss of 0.2 to 0.6 m of water, which is approximately equivalent to 1 to 3 watts per m3 of flow per hour is usually required for efficient flash mixing. The intensity of mixing is dependent upon the temporal mean velocity gradient, G. This is defined as the rate of change of velocity per unit distance normal to a section (or relative velocity of two flow lines divided by the perpendicular distance between them) and has the dimensions of and generally expressed as s-1. The turbulence
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and resultant intensity to mixing is based on the rate of power input to the water and G can be measured or calculate in terms of power input by the following expression: Where, G = Temporal mean velocity gradient, s-1 P = Total input of power in water, watts; = Absolute viscosity of water, N.s/m2; and Vol= Volume of water to which power is applied, m3 Two types of mechanical mixers of coagulant: Rapid rotation of impellers /blades Mixing with the aid of a jet / impingement on a jet Rapid rotation of impellers /blades: Propeller type impellers are commonly employed in flash mixers with high RPM speed of 400 to 1400 rpm Detention time should be of 30 to 60 sec. is provided. Power requirements 1 to 3 Watts per m3 / hr The ratio of impeller diameter to tank diameter is 0.2 to 0.4 and The ratio of tank height to diameter is 1:1 to 3:1 is preferred for proper dispersal. Types of Slow Mixers 1. Gravitational or Hydraulic Type Flocculators a. Horizontal Flow Baffled Flocculator 2. Mechanical Type of Flocculator Paddle flocculators are widely used in practice. The design criteria are depth of tank = 3 to 4.5 m; detention time, t = 10 to 40 min. normally 30 min; velocity of flow = 0.2 0.8 m/s normally 0.4 m/s; total area of paddles = 10 to 25% of the cross-sectional 0.4 m/s is area of the tank; range range of of peripheral velocity of blades = 0.2 0.6 m/s; 0.3recommended; velocity gradient; G = 10 to 75 s-1 range of dimensionless factor Gt= 104 105 and power consumption; 10.0 to 36.0 kw/mld, outlet velocity to settling tank where water has to flow through pope or channel = 0.15 to 0.25 m/s to prevent settling or breaking of floes. For paddle flocculator, the velocity gradient is given by
In which CD = Coefficient of drag (0.8 to 1.9),
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Ap=area of paddle (m2), Volume of water in the Flocculator (m3) Vp= Velocity of the tip of paddle (m/s), VW= Velocity of the water adjacent to the tip of paddle (m/s) The optimum value of G can be calculated
In which G= Optimum velocity Gradient, s-1 t = time of flocculation, min; and c= alum concentration (mg/l)
3.5.3 Clariflocculators
Clariflocculators are widely used in the country in water and wastewater treatment. The coagulation and sedimentation processes are effectively incorporated in a single unit in the clariflocculator. All these units consist of 2 to 4 floculating paddles placed equidistantly. Settling zone The rectangular tanks have lengths commonly upto 30 m but larger lengths upto 100 m have also been adopted. The length to width ration of rectangular tanks should preferably be from about 3:1 to 5:1. the narrower the tank, the less chance there is for setting up of cross currents and eddies due to wind action, temperature changes and other factors involved. In very large size tanks where the depth is necessarily great, it may be advisable to provide longitudinal baffles to confine the flow to definite straight channels. The diameter of the circular tank is governed by the structural requirement of the trusses that carry the scraping mechanism. Circular tanks up to 60 m in diameter are in use but are generally up to 30 m to reduce wind effects. Square tanks are generally smaller usually with side upto 20 m. Square tanks with hopper bottoms having vertical flow have sides generally less than 10 m to avoid large depths. The decomposition of the sludge adversely affects the settling process. Depths commonly used in practice very from 2.5 to 5 m with 3.0 being a preferred value. Bottom slopes may range from 1% in rectangular tanks to about 8% in circular tanks. The slopes of sludge hoppers range from 1.2:1 to 2:1 (Vertical: horizontal).
3.5.4 Sedimentaion
There are two types of Sedimentation tanks. 1. Horizontal Flow Tanks and 2. Vertical Flow Tanks
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1. Horizontal Flow Tanks in the design of a horizontal flow tank, the aim is to achieve as nearly as possible the ideal conditions of equal velocity at all points laying on each vertical line in the settling zone. The direction of flow in the tanks is substantially horizontal. Among the representative designs of the horizontal flow settling tanks, the following may be mentioned: 2. Vertical Flow Tanks Vertical flow tanks normally combine sedimentation with flocculation. These tanks are square or circular in plan and may have hopper bottoms. The influent enters at the bottom.
3.5.5 Filtration
The purpose of filtration is the removal of particulate impurities and flocs from the water being treated. In this regard, the filtration process is the final step in the solids removal process which usually includes the pre-treatment processes of coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation. The degree of treatment applied prior to filtration depends on the quality of water. Typical surface loading rates and detention periods are presented in table3.1
Table3.1: Common Surface Loading and Detention Periods Surface Loading m3/m2/d* Tank Type Range
Plain Sedimentation Horizontal flow, circular Vertical clarifiers * at average design flow
Source: CPHEEO Manual 1999
Detention period, hr* Range

0.01 15 2-8 -
Typical Value for Design

15-30 30-40 40-50
Typical value for design

3-4 2-2.5 1-1.5
Particles normally removed

Sand, clay Alum & iron floc Flocculent silt&
Upto 6000 25-75 -
flow
(upflow)
3.5.6 Slow Sand Filter

Slow Sand filtration was the first type of porous media filtration used in water treatment. This process is known for its simplicity and efficiency. During the initial operational period of slow sand filters, the separation of organic matter and other solids generates a layer of biological matter on the surface of the filter media.
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Design Consideration
Design period 10 years
Plant capacity It would be convenient to convert the daily required volume to a design flow Q, the quantity of water to be treated per hour rather than per day. Thus for a given daily out put the size of plant depends on duration of filter operations. Filtration Rate and No. of filters It is desirable to design filter for a normal filtration head of 0.1 m/hr. Min. of two filter units should be provided. This will restrict the over load rate to 0.2 m/hr when one unit is taken out for cleaning and would ensure uninterrupted productions. For a given area, the optimum number and size of filters which will be only 10% more expensive than the minimum 2 bed unit are given in TABLE.3.2
Table 3.2: Recommended Nos. of Slow Sand Filters for given Plan Areas. Area in sq. m.
Upto 20 20 to 249 250 to 649 650 to 1200 1201 to 2000
No. of Beds.
2 3 4 5 6
Depth of Filter Box The elements that determine the depth of the Filter Box and their suggested depths are free board ( 0.2m ), supernatant water reservoir (1.0m), filter sand (1.0m), supporting gravel (0.3m), and under drainage system (0.2m) with a total depth of 2.7m. The use of proper depths for these elements can reduce cost of filter box considerably without adversely affecting efficiency.
Table 3.3: Summary of Guidelines for Design of Slow Sand Filters

Description Design Period Filtration rate Normal operation Max. overload rate Number of filter beds minimum Area up to 20M2 0.1m/hr 0.2m/hr 2
Recommended Design Value

10years
Description Depth Supernatant water Free board Depth Initial Final (minimum) Size of sand Effective size Uniformity coefficient of filter sand of
Recommended Design Value 1.0m 0.2m 1.0 0.4m 0.2 to 0.3 5
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Description

3
Description (U,C)
Are up to 20 249 smt Area up to 250-649 smt Area up to 650-
Gravel (3-4laers)depth Under drain(Made or of
0.3 m
bricks pipes
perforated
0.2 m
1200 smt Area up to 12012000 smt
5 6
Depth of filter box Effluent weir level above sand bed
2.7m 20-30ml
Filter Sand and Gravel: Undue care in the selection and grading of sand for slow sand filters is neither desirable nor necessary. Use of builder grade or locally available sand can keep the cost low. Similarly, rounded gravel, which is often quite expensive and difficult to obtain, can be replaced by hard, broken stones to reduce cost. Guidelines for design of Slow Sand Filter are in Table 3.3.
3.5.7 Rapid Sand Filtration Plant

Rate of Filtration: The standard rate of filtration through a rapid sand filter is
usually 80 to 100 kpm / m2 (4-6-8 m / hr). Practice is tending towards higher rates (up to 10 m/hr) in combination with greater care in conditioning the water before filtration and with the use of coarser sand (effective size up to 1 mm). A careful arrangement would be to design the filter on the basis of average consumption at a normal rate of 4.8 m / hr but with the inlet and outlet control arrangements designed to permit a 100% overload for emergent occasion.
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Capacity of Filter Units: A maximum area of 100 m2 for a single unit is

recommended for plants of greater than 100 mld consisting of two halves each of 50 m2 area. Also for flexible of operation a minimum of 4 units should be provided which could be reduced to 2 for smaller plants.
Dimension of Filter Units: Layout of the plant, economy and convenience

determine the relationship between the length and the breadth of the units. Where filters are located on both sides of a pipe gallery, the ratio of length to width of a filter-box has been found to lie, in number of installations, between 1.11 and 1.66 average about 1.25 to 1.33. A minimum overall depth of 2.6m including a free board of 0.5 m is adopted.
Filter Sand: Filter sand is defined in terms of effective size and uniformity
coefficient. Effective size is the sieve size in millimetres that permits 10% by weight to pass. Uniformity in size is specified by the uniformity coefficient which is the ratio between the sieve that will pass 60% by weight and the effective size. Shape, size and quality of filter stand shall satisfy the following norms: Sand shall be of hand and resistant quartz or quartzite and free of clay, fine particles, soft grains and dirt of every description. Effective size shall be 0.45 to 0.70 mm Uniformity coefficient shall not be more than 1.7 nor less than 1.3 Ignition loss should not exceed 0.7 % by weight. Soluble fraction in hydrochloric acid shall not exceed 5.0% by weight Silica content should be not less than 90% Specific gravity shall be in the range between 2.55 to 2.65 Wearing loss shall not exceed 3%
Depth of Sand: Usually the sand layer has a depth of 0.6 to 0.75m, but for
higher rate filtration when the coarse medium is used, deeper sand beds are suggested. The standing depth of water over filter varies between 1-2 m. The free board above the water level should be at least 0.5 m so that when air binding problems are encountered, it will facilitate the additional levels of 0.15 to 0.30 m of water being provided to overcome the trouble.
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Box: Sample Calculation of Rapid Sand Filter
Step-1
Suppose Water demand is 9 mld of a city
Step-2
According to Morrel and Wallance formula, the number of units of a filter plant, N = 1.22 x Sqrt of Q =1.22x 3 = 3.66 say 3 nos.
Step-3
Maximum water demand =demand x peak factor=1.8x9000000 per day Hence per hour demand =(1.8x9000000) / 24 =675000 liter per hour
Step-4
Now let us assume rate of filtration is 4000 liter / hr/ sq.m Hence Total area required for filter beds = water demand/Rate of filtration = 67500/4000 sq.m = 168 .75 sq.m
Step-5
Area of each unit = 168.75 / 3 =56.25 Assuming L=1.5 B; Hence 1.5BxB =56.25 B2 = 56.25Hence B=6.12 say 6.15 m. Hence L=1.5 x6.15=9.20 m. H f 9 ld t it d d 3
id
d filt
ld b d
Preparation of Filter Sand: From a sieve analysis of the stock sand, the
coarse and fine portion of stock sand that must be removed in order to meet the size specifications, can be computed in terms of p1, the percentage of suitable stock sand that is smaller than desired effective size d, which is also equal to 10% b of the usable sand P2, the % of the stock sand that is smaller than the desired 60 percentile size d2. The percentage of suitable stock sand p3 is than=2(p2-p1)because the sand lying between the d1 and d2 sizes will constitute half the specified sand. To meet the specified composition, this sand can contain 0.1p3, i of a sand below d1,size. Hence the percentage of p4, below which the stock sand is too fine to use, is P4=p1-0.1p3=p1-0.2(p2-p1) =1.2p1-0.2p2 Likewise, the %age p5 above which the stock sand is too coarse for use is p5=p2+0.4% of usable sand =p2+0.4x2(p2-p1) = p2 + 0.8(p2-p1) = 1.8 p2 -0.8 p1 Size of gravel and depth of gravel layer shall be determined in accordance with the following rules: For strainer or wheeler type under-drain system, gravel shall be 2 mm minimum size, 50 mm maximum size and 0.3 to 0.5 m deep and
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For perforated pipe under-drain system, gravel shall be 2 mm minimum size and 0.5 m in depth
Wash water Gutter

The troughs are designed as free falling weirs or spillways, for free falling rectangular troughs with level invert, the discharge capacity Q in M3 / s may be computed from the formula Q = 1.376 x b x h 3/2 Where b is the width of the trough in m and h is the water depth in m. The pre-treatment units which form essential parts of a Rapid sand filtration unit include (a) Coagulation and flocculation with rapid mixing facilities (b) Sedimentation units. Following different figures 3.2 and 3.3 shows different type of units being provided in various cities:
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(i) In-Line Filtration
Figure3.2: Conventional Filtration
Figure 3.3 Direct Filtration
3.5.8 Disinfection
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Objective: The primary objectives of the chlorination process are disinfection, taste and odour control in the system, preventing the growth of algae and other micro organisms that might interfere with coagulation and flocculation, keeping filter media free of slime growths and mud balls and preventing possible built up of anaerobic bacteria in the filter media, destroying hydrogen sulphide and controlling sulphurous taste and odour in the finished water, removing iron and manganese, bleaching of organic colour. It can also be used for flushing pipeline before it is brought into operation after carrying out repairs etc. However in such case chlorinator is adjusted to apply chlorine or hypochlorite solution at the rate of 50 ppm. heavily chlorinated water should be allowed to stand in the pipeline for at least 30 min. and preferably for 12 hours before being replaced with potable water. Chlorine reacts with water to form hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and Hydrochloric acid (HCl). This hydrolysis reaction is reversible. The hypochlorous acid dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+) and hypochlorite ions (OCl), free available chlorine is hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions. This free available chlorine can react with compounds such as ammonia, proteins, amino acids and phenol which may be present in the water, forming chloramines and chloro-derivatives which constitute the combined chlorine. Chlorination in presence of humic acid and fulvic acid forms Tri-halomethane (THM) which is a heath hazard. The combined available chlorine has less disinfecting properties as compared to free available chlorine. For more details please refer to Manual on Water Supply and Treatment, (1999 Edition).
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3.5.9 Water Treatment Plant

Information, Operation, Maintenance, Records etc. of Water Treatment Plant are describes in the following: Plant Information Source:Surface - i. River ii. Reservoir iii. Dam iv. Lake v. Canal. Ground - i. Well Intake:i. Location. ii. Pollution Source iii. Gates and Valves iv. Structural details. Treatment Process 1. Screens 2. Storage tanks/Pre-settling tanks 3. Pre-disinfection/Pre-chlorination 4. Aeration 5. Coagulation and Flocculation Mixing tank or Mixing channel, Chemicals: lime, alum, or others ii. Tubewell iii. Infiltration well/gallery
Process may be of Conventional or tapered flocculation with independent tank or in the form of a clarifier. 6. Sedimentation Tanks may be (circular or rectangular).If circular; it may have either clariflocculators with or without Scrapers. 7. Filters
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Filtration process may be by Slow Rapid sand filter or slow sand filter but, in both the cases they will have filter box and filter media 8. Clear Water Tanks Number and size clear water tank may be decided Capacity.
3.6 Quality Standards

The Environmental Hygiene Committee (1949) recommended that the objective of a public water supply should be to supply water "that is absolutely free from risks of transmitting diseases, is pleasing to the senses and is suitable for culinary and laundering purposes" and added that " freedom from risks is comparatively more important than physical appearance or hardness" and that safety is an obligatory requirement and physical and chemical qualities are optional within a range. The physical and chemical quality of drinking water should be in accordance with the recommended guidelines mentioned in table. Ceased with the introduction of the Manual on Water Supply and Treatment, third editionrevised 1999, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, wherein the following Water Quality norms have recommended and presented in table 3.3 Table 3.3 Recommended Parameters Sr. No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Guidelines
for
Physical
and
Chemical
Characteristic
Turbidity (NTU) Colour ()Units on Platinum Cobalt scale) Taste and Odour pH Total dissolved solids (mg/l) Total Hardness (as CaCO3) (mg/l) Chlorides (as Cl) (mg/l) Sulphates (as SO4) (mg/l) Fluoride (as F) (mg/l) Nitrates (as NO3) (mg/l) Calcium (as Ca) (mg/l) Magnesium (as Mg) (mg/l)
Acceptable
1 5 Unobjectionable 7.0 to 8.5 500 200 200 200 1.0 45 75 < 30
Cause for Rejection

10 25 Objectionable <6.5 or> 9.2 2000 600 1000 400 1.5 45 200 150
If there are 250 mg/l of sulphates, Mg content can be increased to maximum of mg/l with the reduction of sulphates at the rate of unit per every Units of sulphates 13 14 15 16 Iron (as Fe) (mg/l) Manganese (as Mn) (mg/l) Copper (as Cu) (mg/l) Aluminium (as Al) (mg/l) 0.1 0.05 0.05 0.03 1.0 0.5 1.5 0.2
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Sr. No.
17 18 19 20 21 22
Characteristic
Alkalinity (mg/l) Residual Chlorine (mg/l) Zinc (as Zn) (mg/l) Phenolic compound (as Phenol) (mg/l) Anionic detergent (mg/l) (as MBAS) Mineral Oil (mg/l)
Acceptable
200 0.2 5.0 0.001 0.2 0.01
Cause for Rejection

600 >1.0 15.0 0.002 1.0 0.03
TOXIC MATERIALS 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Arsenic (as As) (mg/l) Cadmium (as Cd) (mg/l) Chromium (as hexavalent Cr) (mg/l) Cyanides (as CN) (mg/l) Lead (as Pb) (mg/l) Selenium (as Se) (mg/l) Mercury (total as Hg) (mg/l) Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) (g/l) 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.01 0.001 0.2 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.01 0.001 0.2 Refer 31 Pesticides (total, mg/l) Absent to WHO for water Vol I-
guidelines drinking quality 1993 RADIO ACTIVITY 32 33 Gross Alpha activity (Bq/l) Gross beta activity (Bq/l) 0.1 1.0 0.1 1.0
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Recommended guidelines for physical and chemical parameters The figures indicated under the column Acceptable are the limits upto which water is generally acceptable to the consumers. Figures in excess of those mentioned under acceptable render the water not acceptable but still may be tolerated in the absence of an alternative and better source but upto the limits indicated under column Cause for Rejection above which the sources will have to be rejected. It is possible that some mine and spring waters may exceed these radio activity limits and in such cases it is necessary to analyze the individual radio-nuclides in order to assess the acceptability or otherwise for public consumption.
Bacteriological Quality of Drinking Water Organisms

All water intended for drinking E coli or thermo-tolerant coliform bacteria b,c Treated system E. coli or thermo-tolerant coliform bacteria b Total coliform bacteria Treated system E. coli or thermo-tolerant coliform bacteria b Total coliform bacteria water entering the distribution water entering the distribution Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample. In case of large supplies, where sufficient samples are examined, must not be present in 95 % of samples taken through out any 12 method period.
Guideline value
Source: WHO guidelines for Dinking Water quality Vol. 1 - 1993
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Table 3.4 Recommended Treatments for Different Water Sources to Produce Water with negligible Virus Riska type of sources ground water protected, deep well; essentially free of faecal contamination unprotected, shallow wells; feacally contaminated surface water protected, impounded upland water; essentially free of faecal contamination unprotected impounded water or upland river; faecal contamination unprotected lowland contamination unprotected lowland faecal contamination rivers; rivers; faecal heavy pre-disinfection or storage, filtration, disinfection pre-disinfection or storage, filtration, additional treatment and disinfection not recommended for drinking water Recommended treatment disinfection filtration and disinfection disinfection filtration and disinfection
unprotected watershed; gross faecal contamination

Source: CPHEEO manual 1999
For all sources, the median value of turbidity before terminal disinfection must not exceed 1 nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU). Terminal disinfection must produce a residual of free chlorine of > 0.5 mg/litre after atleast 30 minutes of contact in water at pH < 8.0, or must be shown to be an equivalent disinfection process in terms of the degree of enterovirus inactivation (>99.99 %).
Filtration must be either slow and siltration or rapid filtration (sand, dual, or mixed media) proceeded by adequate congulation-flocculation (with sedimentation or floatation). Diatomaceous earth filtration or filtration process demonstrated to achieve > 99 % enterovirus reduction.
Disinfection should be used if monitoring has shown the presence of E.coli or thermo-tolerant coliform bacteria.
Source: W.H.O. guidelines for Drinking Water Quality - 1993 Note: The figures indicated under the column 'Acceptable' are the limits up to which water is generally acceptable to the consumers. Figures in excess of those mentioned under 'Acceptable' render the water not acceptable, but still may be tolerated in the absence of an alternative and better source but up to the limits indicated under column "Cause for Rejection" above which the sources will have to be rejected.
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3.7 Distribution System

An accurate and detailed water supply distribution system can be designed after the following information is available. Detailed survey of levels of the area/zones/sectors. Zones and their individual water requirements. Detailed internal layout of some sectors especially reserved sectors (as per the layout plan). Internal road networks inside the sectors.
Table 3.5: Peak factors for Contributory Population Contributory population

Upto 50,000 50,000 to 2,00,000 Above 2,00,000
Peak Factor
3.00 2.50 2.00
3.7.1 Design of Pressure Pipelines

Generally a pipe is a closed conduit which is used for carrying fluids under pressure. Pipes are commonly circular in section. As the pipes carry fluids under pressure, the pipes always run full. The fluid flowing in a pipe is always subjected to resistance due to shear forces between the fluid particles and the boundary walls of the pipe and between the fluid particles themselves resulting from the viscosity of the fluid. As stated earlier the frictional resistance offered to the flow depends on the type of flow. As such different laws are obeyed by frictional resistance in laminar and the turbulent flows. Generally, water flowing through pipes in water distribution systems is assumed as laminar flow. On the bases of the experimental observation, the laws of fluid friction for laminar flow may be narrated as follows: Laws: The frictional resistance in the laminar flow is (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Proportional to the velocity of flow, Independent of the pressure, Proportional to the area of surface in contact, Dependent of the nature of the surface in contact, Greatly affected by the variation of the temperature of the flowing fluids.
While designing the pipe section velocity through pipe section is assumed 0.8 to 1.6 m/s .As a rule of thumb for design assume higher velocity of 1.2 to 1.4 In normal case it is assumed 1.4 m/s With assumption of velocity diameter of the pipe section is determined by Q= [(/4)d2 ] v (where Q in m3/s)
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The pipe section and material is fixed for calculating head loss through the section. It is important to know the residual pressure of water flowing through the pipelines wherein the hydraulic gradient over its entire length lays above the crown / sofit of the pipelines. However the designed pipeline is governed by Hazen-Williams equation.
3.7.2 Minimum Pipe Sizes

Minimum pipe sizes (diameter) required and recommended by CPHEEO are 100 mm for towns having population upto 50,000 and 150 mm for those above 50,000. Pipelines having size less than 100 mm can be considered for dead ends.
3.7.3 Pipe and Material of Construction

Pipe materials generally used for water supply network are cast iron(CI), reinforced cement concrete(RCC), pre-stressed concrete, asbestos cement(AC), rigid PVC, ductile iron(DI), fibre glass pipe, glass reinforced plastic, fibre reinforced plastic, low density and high density polyethylene(HDPE), etc. The manufacturing process of AC pipes is known to be carcinogenic, and thus many water supply boards have stopped using AC pipes. RCC pipes are prone to O & M problems and are difficult to maintain. CI pipes are prone to corrosion, though they are advantageous over cost considerations as well as in terms of O&M. The HDPE pipe is the cheapest material, but their overall performance in many cities is far from satisfactory. The cost of DI pipe is very high, however, these pipes could be considered under adverse soil conditions. Considering the problems that each type of pipe material has, use of PVC pipes is the most suitable option. Equation Hf = (f L v2)/(2gD) is known as Darcy Weishbach equation
which can be used for computing the head loss due to friction in pipes. Where v is velocity of water flowing through the pipe. ,f ,L ,g ,D frictional factor length of the pipes is acceleration due to gravity Diameter of the pipe.
But, f is independent of the pipe material and therefore not in use. The Standard HazenWilliams formula commonly in use for Head loss calculation through pipe section Q=3.110-4 c D2.63 S0.54 Where Q is in KLd, C is H-W coefficient, D is in mm, And S is hydraulic loss in mt / mt
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The values of the Hazen Williamss coefficient C for new conduits and the values as recommended in the Manual on Water Supply and Treatment third edition-revised 1999,Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India to be adopted for design purposes are recommended as under in table 3.6.
Table 3.6: Recommended C Values Pipe Material

Unlined Metallic Pipes Cast Iron, Ductile Iron Mild Steel Galvanized Iron above 50 mm dia. connections. Centrifugally Lined Metallic Pipes Cast Iron, Ductile Iron and Mild Steel Pipes Lined with cement mortar or Epoxy. Up to 1200 mm dia. Above 1200 mm dia. 140 145 130* # # Galvanized Iron 50 mm dia and below used for house service 130 140 120 120
Recommended C for New@ Pipes
Projection Method Cement Mortar lined Metallic Pipes Cast Iron , Ductile Iron and Mild Steel Pipes Non Metallic Pipes RCC Spun Concrete , Prestressed Concrete Up to 1200 mm dia. Above 1200 mm dia. Asbestos Cement PVC , GRP and other Plastic pipes
140 145 150 150
@ The C value for new pipes included is for determining the acceptability of surface finish of new pipelines # The quality of galvanizing should be in accordance with the relevant standards to ensure resistance to corrosion throughout its design life. * For pipes of diameter 500 mm and above. The range of C values may be from 90 to 125 for pipes having diameters less than 500 mm. And Check the velocity of flow through pipe by equation V=4.567103CD0.63 S0.54 Where D is in mm and v is in m/s
3.7.4 Modified Hazen Williams Formula

Hfm = {[ L ( Q/Cr)1.81 ]/994.62 } D 4.81 Where q is in mld, D is in mm ,Cr =1 Note: 1. Standard HazenWilliam formula generally used for hydraulic
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designs of pressure pipelines is having certain limitations.
The results obtained by its use suffer from considerable inaccuracies. Thus its use resulted generally in over- designing of pipelines. may be nonavailability of design In spite of the fact that the modified H-W formula is more rational, it is not being widely used at present. One of the reasons aids for the same. Calculate actual Hydraulic loss as actual length of pipe section H Loss = S L /1000 mt. Where, S = slope, L = length Calculate cumulative hydraulic loss adding 10% extra loss for unaccounted losses flowing direction of water through pipe. Now considering the reduced level of source of supply and tail end of the pipe section calculate the Residual Pressure.
3.7.5 Residual Pressure

Piped water supplies should be designed such as to distribute water to consumers on continuous 24 hours basis at adequate pressure at all points. Intermittent supplies are neither desirable from the public health point of view nor economical. For towns where one-storied buildings are common and for supply to the ground level storage tanks in multi-storied buildings, the minimum residual pressure at ferrule point should be 7m for direct supply. Where two-storied buildings are common, it may be 12m and where three-storeyed buildings are prevalent 17 m or as stipulated-by local byelaws. The pressure required for fire fighting ring would have to be boosted by the fire engines. The distribution system would be designed for the following minimum residual pressures at end points as given in the table 3.7. Minimum Residual pressures are governed by Building Bye-laws of the city.
Table 3.7: Minimum Residual Pressures Requirement Type of Building

Ground Level Structure G+1 G+2
Minimum Residual Pressure

7m 12 m 17 m
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Box-1 SampleCalculation
for Town: Vijaynagar Population :-
Census Year 1981 1991 2001 2011
Population 4005 4871 5676 6324
Decadal Growth Rate 21.62 16.52 Assumed 11.42
Increasing/decreasin g growth rate
-5.1
Water discharge demanded in2011 one Q= 135 lpd mld Diameter main water ESR supplying from t of pipe day for is 3 6324
=2561220 =2.56
3.8 Case Study of Rajkot City

Engineering Design for ESR & GSR in Ward No.6 of Rajkot City: Present population of the proposed site of ESR and GSR is around 1.25 lacs and same will be about 1.60 lacs in the year 2015. Considering the supply 30 gallons per capita per day, the total present requirement works out to 37.50 lakhs gallons per day and that of for the year 2015 works out to 48 lakhs GPD. Ideally 24 hours storage of future requirement of 48 lakhs gallons per day is required to be provided but because of the limited space, it is proposed to provide storage of 14 hours capacity of ultimate stage requirement. With this the storage capacity works out
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to 28 lakhs gallons i.e. 12.75 M.L., provide ground storage 10 M.L. and elevated stage - 3 M.L.
Civil Design Component:

(1) Design of inlet pipe line (from off take point in Aji-Mavdi main of 850 mm dia.) The present population of sub head work 1.25 lacs The population for the year 2015 Considering rate of W.S. 30 GPCD The requirement of water works are as under For 2005- 1.25 x 30 = For 2015 1.60 x 30 = 37.5 lacs gallon = 17.02 ML 48 lacs gallon = 21.79 ML 1.60 lacs
Storage capacity 13 M.L. to be filled up in 14 hours. In let pipe capacity...... = 0.9285 ML/hr. = 0.2579 m3/ sec Assume velocity 1.2 mt/sec. The size of inlet main work out to 0.258 = A x 1.2 D= 523 mm Say 500 mm M.S. or 450 mm D.I. Size of ESR-GSR: Size of GSR . 10 ml capacity provide two compartment Capacity of one compartment - 5 ml = 5000 m3 Provide water depth 4.5 mt. Therefore area 5000m3 = 1111.11 sq.mt. 4.5 Provide rectangular size L X B = 1111.11 sq.mt. Assume L = 1.25 B Therefore, 1.25 B x B = 1111.11 Therefore, B2 = 1111.11 = 888.88 1.25 Therefore, B = 29.81 mt. Say 30 mt. therefore, L = 37.50 Provide GSR size 37.5 x 30 x 4.5 = 5062.5 m3 Size of ESR . Capacity of ESR is proposed of 3 ML. Therefore, provide ESR with shaft dia. - 15.0 mt. and water depth in container 6 mt Height of ESR 25 mts. 13 14
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(3)
Design of pumping machinery Provide electrically driven C.F. sets Total period of supply - 6 hrs. Quantity to be supplied - 17.02 ML present = 2836.66 m3/hr 21.79 ML Future = 3631.66 m3/hr Provide 3 set working for present demand Therefore, size 2836.66 = 945.55 Say: 946 m3/hr 3 For ultimate demand 4 sets will be working. Therefore, 946 x 4 = 3784 m3/hr > 3632 m3/hr
Therefore, provide six sets each having capacity ,946 m3/hr against head of 35 mt. Therefore K.W. = 946 x 35 x 1.15 = 129.61 367.2 x 0.8 Actual load 20 KW 800 KW For present stage 100% standby (3+3) For ultimate stage 50% standby (4+2) (4) Design of pipe size Rising main from P.H. to ESR Total quantity 946 x 4 = 3784 m3/hr Assume velocity 2 mt/sec. 1.051 = A x 2 d= 818 mm dia. Say 800 mm dia. for ESR Size of inlet Size of outlet Size of over flow Size of washout 800 mm dia 850 mm dia - 850 mm dia - 200 mm dia 1.051 m3/Sec. Say 130 KW Therefore, Total K.W. .. 130 x 6 = 780 KW
Refer Guidelines and Specification for Civil, Mechanical and Electrical works which are provided in CD
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4.0 Design Criteria of Sewerage Projects

4.1 Objective
The objective of a public waste water collection and disposal system is to ensure that sewage or excreta and sullage discharged from communities is properly collected, transported, treated to the required degree and finally disposed off without causing any health or environmental problems. Waste water disposal systems can be either the on-site type or the kind where water borne wastes are disposed off-site into a water body or on land. To keep overall costs down, most urban systems today are planned as an optimum mix of the two types depending on various factors.
4.2 Main Considerations

In designing waste water collection, treatment, and disposal systems, planning generally begins from the final disposal point going backwards to give an integrated and optimum design to suit the topography and the available hydraulic head, supplemented by pumping if essential. Once the disposal points are tentatively selected, further design is guided by the following design considerations: Engineering Environmental Process Cost
4.2.1 Engineering Considerations

Design period, stage wise population to be served and expected of the sewage flow to and be fluctuations. Topography available general area served, its slope and terrain. Tentative sites for treatment plant, pumping stations and disposal works. Available hydraulic head in the system upto high flood level in case of disposal to a nearby river or high tide level in case of coastal discharge or then level of the irrigation area to be commanded in case of land disposal. Ground water depth and its seasonal variation affecting construction, sewer infiltration, and structural design (uplift).
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Soil bearing capacity and type of strata expected to be met at the time of construction. Onsite disposal facilities, including the possibilities of segregating the sullage water and sewage and reuse or recycle sullage water within the households.
4.2.2 Environmental Considerations

Surface water hydrology and quality. Ground water quality. Coastal water quality Odour and Mosquito nuisance Public Health Landscaping
4.2.3 Process Considerations

Waste water flow and Characteristics Degree of treatment required Performance characteristics Other process requirements Cost considerations
4.3 Design Period

Sewerage projects may be designed normally to meet the requirements over a thirty year period after their completion. The period between design and completion should also be taken into account which should be between three to six years depending on the type and size of the project. The length of time up to which the capacity of a sewer will be adequate is referred to as the design period. Sewerage projects may be designed normally to meet the requirements over a thirty year period after their completion. The period between design and completion should also be taken into account which should be between three to six years depending on the type and size of the project. The project components may be designed to meet the periods mentioned in table 4.1 below: Table 4.1: Design Periods for components of sewerage system and sewage treatment Sr .N o
1
Component
Collection System
Recommende d Design Period (in Years)
Clarification
The system should be designed for the prospective population of 30 years as its
i.e. Sewer Network
30
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Sr .N o
Component
Recommende d Design Period (in Years)
Clarification
replacement is not possible during its use
Pumping (Civil Works)
Stations
Duplicating machinery within the pumping 30 station would be easier/cost of civil works will be economical for full design period. 15 Life of pumping machinery is Generally 15 years The construction may be in a Phased manner as initially the flows may not 30 reach the designed levels and it will be uneconomical to build the full capacity plant initially. Provision of design capacities in the
Pumping Machinery
Sewage Plant
Treatment
Effluent disposal and Utilization
30
initial stages itself is economical.
Source: CPHEEO, 1991
4.4 Population Forecast

As per module 2.2: Demand Assessment
4.5 Sewage Generation

As per the CPHEEO norms, sewage generated will be considered as 80% of the water reaching the consumer end. Such assumption will lead to more realistic sewage flow considerations and economical design of sewerage system. The sewage flows considered for design of the sewerage system will comprise of sewage emanating from domestic, commercial and industrial premises. An infiltration allowance of 5 % should be considered.
4.5.1 Sewage flows

Sewage flows for the design of sewers will include peak dry weather flows of domestic sewage from residential, commercial and institutional areas. Generally 80% of the water supply may be expected to reach the sewers unless there is data available to the contrary. However the sewers should be designed for a minimum waste water flow of 100 litres per capita per day.
4.5.2 Peak factors

The flow in sewers varies considerably from hour to hour and also seasonally but for the purposes of hydraulic design it is the estimated peak flow that is adopted. The peak factor or the ratio of maximum to average flows depends upon contributory population and the following values (refer table 4.2) are recommended.
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Table 4.2: Peak factors for Contributory Population Contributory Population

upto 20,000 20,000 to 50,000 50,000 to 7,50,000 above 7,50,000
Peak factor
3.00 2.50 2.25 2.00
4.5.3 Self Cleansing Velocities

Velocity of flow of waste water is assumed 0.6 m/s for deciding the size of sewer line. The flow velocity should not be less than 0.4 m/s and not greater than 2.44 m/s. Discharge of waste water is computed by Qf = future population per capita discharge Peak factor And Qt = 1.25 Qf With assumption of velocity diameter of the pipe section is determined by Q= [(/4) d2 ] v (where Q in m3/s)
4.5.4 Minimum size of sewers

Minimum Size (diameter) of sewers in urban areas should be 150 mm and 100 mm in hilly areas. The Manning formula given below is commonly used for such design of sewer line. V = (1 / N ) R
2/3
Where R = Hydraulic radius
For circular conduit Hydraulic radius R = D/4 Hence For circular conduit , V = (1/N ) 0.003968 D2/3 S1/2 And Qt = (0.2693/106 ) (1/N) D
8/3
S1/2
Where Qt = quantity of flow in mld D = dia . of the pipe in mm N = Manning`s coefficient of roughness S = slope of hydraulic gradient (generally slope of pipelines) Values of 1 in L (gradient) are obtained which are inverse values of slope i.e. 1/S The values of Manning`s Coefficient (Coefficient of Roughness) recommended for different pipe materials are given below.
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Type of Pipe Material Sault glazed stoneware pipes Cement Concrete Pipes. (with collar joint).
Condition (a) good (b)Fair (a)good (b)Fair
N 0.012 0.015 0.013 0.015
Spun concrete pipes (RCC & PSC) with Socket spigot joints (Design Value) Steel (a) Welded (b)Rivetted (c) Slightly tuberculated (d) With spun cement mortar lining Caste Iron (a) Unlined (b) With spun cement mortar lining Asbestos cement Plastic (smooth) 0.013 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.013 0.017 0.020 0.011 0.011
As the pipes used for sewers and drains are mostly stoneware , cement concrete , RCC and PSC , most of the design work is covered in using the value of N = 0.015 , 0.013 and 0.011. however for sewage pumping main CI and MS/Steel pipe could be used. Getting size and gradient is not final but, it should be checked for velocity of flow by expression Vt = (1/N) 0.003968 D2/3 S1/2 Where Vt is velocity of flow of discharge Qt Now it should be checked for minimum velocity v when ratio is Qp/Qt = v/Vt and Qf/Qt = v/Vt
4.6 Flow Characteristics

From consideration of ventilation in waste water flow, sewers should not be designed to run full. All sewers are to be designed to flow 0.8 full at ultimate peak flow. There are occasions when the characteristics such as velocity, discharge, depth of flow etc. are required to be computed when the pipe lines laid at a certain grade are flowing partly full. The Mannings formula is, of course, the basis, which enables determination of the full-flow characteristics. Then from the geometrical properties of circular sections, the velocity, discharge etc. can be calculated for partial flow conditions.
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The partial flow elements viz. area, velocity, discharge etc. are expressed as ratios of the corresponding full flow values. These ratios are tabulated in the following table 4.3 Table 4.3: Hydraulic Check d/D
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
v/V
1.000 1.124 1.140 1.120 1.072 1.000 0.902 0.776 0.615 0.401
q/Q
1.000 1.066 0.968 0.838 0.671 0.500 0.337 0.196 0.088 0.021
D = Full Depth of flow (internal diameter of pipe) V = Velocity at full depth v = Velocity at depth partial q = Discharge partial (at present population and Q = Discharge at full future population)
In actual design the discharge ratio q/Q for the pipe is first known and the velocity of flow, depth etc. at the partial flow condition are required to be calculated. Table is given for values of ratio v/V and q/Q for different values of d/D
4.6.1 Velocity at Minimum Flow

It has been shown that for sewers running partially full, for a given flow and slope, velocity is influenced by pipe diameter. It is therefore, recommend to adopt slopes given below for peak flow up to 30 lps , which would ensure a minimum velocity of 0.60 mps in early years.
4.6.2 Minimum Size of Sewer

A minimum diameter of 150 mm has been considered to identify the proposed sewer under study. Three factors are influencing for deciding the diameter of sewer pipeline. (1) Population of initial stage of commissioning & wastewater quantity generated. (2) Peak flow & velocity during initial stage of commissioning for self cleansing (3) Proposed gradient in sewer line.
4.6.3 Minimum Depth of cover

To facilitate connection of house drains to branch sewers and to provide protection to the sewers from external loads, the minimum depth of cover over any sewer line should be 1 metre. However, the same will be considered even up to 1.5 to 2.0 m depending on specific site conditions.
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4.6.4 Maximum Depth of Sewer Invert

The maximum depth of sewer invert needs to be about 7 metres below ground level considering the nature of soil strata, ground water table and method of construction in the project area. Such depth limitations prevent pipes being laid in underground water which could have lead to the problem of excessive infiltration and added pumping costs. In rare cases, for short length consideration have been set aside to avoid pumping stations for small lifts.
4.6.5 Ground Water Infiltration

Estimation of flow in sanitary sewers may include certain flows due to infiltration of ground water through joints. The quantity will depend on workmanship in laying of sewers and level of the ground water table. Since sewers are designed for peak discharges, allowance for ground water infiltration for the worst condition in the area should be made. Suggested estimate of ground water infiltration for sewers laid below ground water table 4.4 are as follows: Table 4.4: Suggested estimate of ground water infiltration Litres/Ha.d Litres/km.d Lpd/manhole
Minimum 5,000 500 250
Maximum 50,000 5,000 500
With improved standards of workmanship and quality and availability of various construction aids, these values should tend to the minimum, rather than the maximum. These values should not mean any relaxation on the water tightness test requirements in Hydraulic testing of pipe sewers.
4.6.6 Sewer hydraulics

The hydraulic design considerations are greatly influenced by the topography and the ground water table as well as the difficulties likely to be encountered during the construction due to soil strata With flatter slopes, the flow velocities in sewers are low and siltation occurs. However it has to be mentioned that sewers do get silted, even if the same are designed for higher velocities by proposing steeper slopes due to typical situations like connections with storm water drainage, entry of refuge, debris, etc. into the system. It must therefore be emphasised that sewer silting can be seldom prevented. The only method for effective sewer operation, is the periodic cleaning of sewers with suction and water jetting machines. Maximum depth of flow should not increase beyond 5 to 6 meters and pumping stations may be provided to limit the depth of sewers.
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If this practical situation is accepted, the sewer velocity criteria looses the significance with which it is all along associated. The sewer design therefore has to be guided by the limitations of depth and practicalities such as minimising the number of pumping stations (for obvious reasons).
4.6.7 Material of construction

Pipe materials generally used for sewers are glazed stoneware, cast iron, reinforced cement concrete; glass fibre reinforced plastic and high-density polyethylene.
4.6.8 Joints
Joints provided need to be of either collar joint or spigot & socket joint with a rubber ring.
Box. 2 : Classes of Bedding for conduit in trench

Sample Clculation : Vijaynagar Population (present) = 5676 Vijaynagar Population (Fututre) = 6324 Present Discharge q = 0.80 5676 135 3 =1839024 lpd = 1839.024 klpd =1.84 mld Future Discharge Qf = 0.80 6324 135 3 =2048976 lpd = 2048.976 klpd = 2.05 mld Design Discharge Qd = 2048976 100/80 = 2561220 lpd = 2561.220 klpd = 2.56 mld
Dia. Of Pipe section flowing collected wastewater to treatment plant = sqrt of [(Qd 4) / (3.14 V)] =sqrt of [ (2561220 4) /( 1000 24 60 60 3.14 0.80) ] = 0.217 mt. = 250 mm
8/3
Slope of the pipe section Qt = (0.2693/106 ) (1/N) D S1/2 S
S1/2 = 0.00248 mt /mt
=[ (2.56 106 .013 ) / (0.2693 2508/3)] = square of [ 0.04982]
Gradient = 1/s = 1/ 0.00248 = 1 in 403.22 mt = 1 mt fall in 403 mt length Design Velocity V = (1/N ) 0.003968 D2/3 S1/2 = (1/.013) 0.003968 2502/3 0.002481/2 = 0.603 mt/sec q / Qd ratio = 1.84 /2.56 =0.72 , from above table for q/Qd v/V ratio = 1.08 ; therefore v = 1.08 0 .603 mt/sec = 0.65 mt/sec which is > 0.3 mt/sec O.K Qf /Qd = 2.05/2.56 =0.800 From above table for Qf / Qd , v/v ratio = 1.109 Therefore v = 1.109 0.603 mt./sec
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4.6.9 Type of bedding

Bedding is an essential component of sewer laying and bedding of different classes viz. A, B, C & D has given in the CPHHEO Manual on Sewerage and Sewerage Treatment (Second Edition), December 1993 may be provided keeping in view the depth of sewer and ground water. The type of bedding to be provided for pipes viz. granular bedding, plain cement concrete (M20) and cement concrete (M20) encasement will depend on the depth at which the sewer is laid; three edge bearing strength of pipes; load due to back-fill and superimposed vehicular traffic loads. Guidelines provided in CPHEEO manual are followed for deciding the type of bedding. Classes of bedding Four classes, A, B, C, and D of bedding used most often for pipes. Class A bedding may be either concrete cradle arch. Class B is bedding having sharp bottom or compacted granular bedding with carefully compacted backfill. Class C is an ordinary bedding having a shaped bottom or compacted granular bedding but with a lightly compaction of backfill at the sides and immediately over the pipe and hence is not recommended. Class B and C bedding with compacted granular bedding is generally recommended. The pipe bedding material must remain firm and not permit displacement of pipes. The material has to be uniformly graded or well graded or well graded. Uniformly graded material included pea gravel or one sizes of particles in stated proportions, ranging from maximum to a minimum size, coarse sand, pea gravel or one size materials with low percentage of over and undersize of particles in stated proportions, ranging from a maximum toa s minimum size, coarse sand, pea gravel, crushed screening, can be used for pipe bedding. Fine materials or not satisfactory for stabilizing trench bottoms and are difficult to compact in a uniform manner to provide proper pipe bedding. Well graded material is most effective for stabilizing trench bottom and has a lesser tendency to flow than uniformly graded materials. However, uniformly graded material is easier to place and compact above sewer pipes.
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Load Factor: The load factors for the different classes of bedding are given in Table 4.5. Table 4.5: Load Factors for Different Classes of Bedding Class of bedding
A A A a b c
Condition
Concrete cradle-plain concrete and lightly tamped backfill Concrete cradle-plain concrete with carefully tamped backfill Concrete cradle RCC Arch type plain concrete RCC with P - 0.4 %
Load Factor
2.2 2.8 Up to 3.4 2.8 Up to 3.4 Up to 4.8
d crown)
RCC with P 1.0 % (P is the ratio of the steel to the area of concrete at the Shaped bottom or compacted granular bedding with
B C D
carefully compacted backfill Shaped bottom or compacted granular bedding with lightly compacted backfill Flat bottom trench
1.9 1.5 1.1
The granular material used must stabilize the trench bottom in addition to providing a firm and uniform support for the pipe. Well graded crushed rock or gravel with the maximum size not exceeding 25mm is recommended for the purpose. Where rock or other unyielding foundation material is encountered, bedding may be according to one of the Classes A,B or C but with the following additional requirements. Class A: The hard unyielding material should be excavated down to the bottom of the concrete cradle. Class B or C: The hard unyielding material should be excavated below the bottom of the pipe and pipe bell to a depth of atleast 15cm. The width of the excavation should be atleast 1.25 tomes the outside dia of the pipe and it should be refilled with granular material. Total encasement of non-reinforced rigid pipe in concrete may be necessary where the required safe supporting strength can not be obtained by other bedding methods. The load factor for concrete encasement varies with the thickness of concrete. The effect of M-200 concrete encasement of various thickness on supporting strength of pipe under trench conditions is given in fig.
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Supporting strength in Embankment Conditions The soil pressure against the side of a pipe placed in an embankment may be significant in the vertical load of the structure. Classes of Bedding for projecting conduits The beddings which are generally adopted for projecting conduits laid under the embankment conditions of installation are illustrated in figure 4.1. The classification of the bedding is as under: Class A: In this case the conduit is laid on a mat of concrete. Class B: the conduit is laid on accurately shaped earth to fit the bottom of the pipe and the sides are filled with thoroughly damped earth. CLASS C : In this type of bedding the conduit is laid on accurately shaped earth to fit the bottom surface of the conduit. For rock foundations the conduit is laid on a layer of granular cushion and the sides of the conduit are filled up. CLASS D: The conduit is laid on earth not shaped to fit the bottom of the conduit. In case of rocky soil the conduit is laid on a shallow granular cushion. Load Factor The load factor for rigid pipes installed as projecting conduits under embankments or in wide trenches is dependent on the type of bedding. The magnitude of the active lateral soil pressure and on the area of the pipe over which the active lateral soil pressure and on the area of the pipe over which the active lateral pressure acts. The load factor for projecting circular conduits may be calculated by the formula 1.431 L1 = Where L1 = the load factor N z q = A parameter dependent on the type of bedding = a parameter dependent upon the area over which the lateral pressure acts = the ratio of total lateral pressure to total vertical load on pipe. Nzq
effectively and
Positive Projecting Conduits The ratio q for positive projecting conduits may be estimated by the formula q = (mk /C0) [(H/B0) + (m/2)] Where, k = The Rankines ratio which may be taken as 0.33. The value of N for different types of bedding for circular pipes are given in table 6.7
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Fig 4.1 Classes of Bedding for Projecting Conduits Table4.6: Values of N for Different Pipe Beddings Type of Bedding
A Reinforced concrete cradle A - Plain concrete cradle B C D
Value of
0.42 to 0.51 0.51 to 0.64 0.71 0.84 1.31
The value of z in case of circular pipes is given in Table 4.7
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Table 4.7: Values of Z For Different Pipe Beddings Fraction of conduit on which lateral pressure acts m
0.00 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.0
Value of z for A Class Beddings

0.150 0.743 0.856 0.811 0.678 0.638
Other Beddings
0.000 0.217 0.423 0.594 0.655 0.638
Negative Projective Conduits The load factor for negative projecting conduits may be determined by the equations (6.15) and (6.16) with value of k of 0.15. Provided the side fills are well compacted. Imperfect Trench Conditions The equations for positive projecting conditions will hold good for those conditions as well. Conduits under Simultaneous Internal Pressure and External Loading Simultaneous action of internal pressure and external load gives a lower supporting strength of a pipe than what it would be if the external load acted alone. If the bursting strength and the three edge strength of a pipe are known. The relation between the internal pressure and external loads which will cause failure may be computed by means of the formula t = T (1-s2) S where t = internal pressure in kg/cm2 at failure when external load is simultaneously acting T = bursting strength of a pipe in kg/cm2 when no external load is simultaneously acting s = three- edge bearing load at failure in kg/linear metre when there is no internal pressure simultaneously acting. Relationship between the different elements in structural design .6.17
The basic design relationship between the different design elements are as follows for grid pipes
Safe working strength = Ultimate three edge bearing strength Factor of safety
Safe field supporting strength = Safe working strength x Load factor
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Recommendations The factor of safety recommended for concrete pipes for sewers is 1.5 which is considerably less as compared to that for most engineering structures which have a factor of safety of atleast 2.5. As the margin of safety against the ultimate failure is low, it becomes imperative to guarantee that the loads imposed on sewer pipes are not greater than the design loads for the given installation conditions. In the order to achieve this objective the following process are recommended. Width of the trench specified for a particular job should be minimum in consonance with the requirements of adequate working space to allow access to all parts and joints of pipes. Specification should lay proper emphasis on the limit of the width of trench to be adopted in the field which should not exceed that adopted in the design calculations. Any deviations from this requirement during the construction should be investigated for their possible effect on the load coming on the pipe and steps should be taken to improve the safe supporting strength of pipe for this condition of loading by adopting suitable Bedding or such other methods when necessary. The field Engineer should keep in touch with the Design Engineer throughout the duration of the project and any deviation from the design assumptions due to the exigencies of work should be immediately investigated and corrective measures taken in time. All pipes used on the work should be tested as per the IS specifications and test certificates of the manufactures should be furnished for every consignment brought to the site. Whenever shoring is used, the pulling out of planks on completion of work should be carried out in stages and this should be properly supervised to ensure that the space occupied by the planks is properly backfilled. Proper backfilling methods both as regards to selection of materials, methods of placing and proper compaction should be in general agreement with the design assumptions.
4.7 Sewer Appurtenances

4.7.1 Manholes
Manholes are to be provided at all junctions, change of sewer size, gradient and direction. As per the general practice the spacing of manhole is kept between 25 to 40 mt for all diameters. Spacing of Manholes adopted is as follows: a) Pipe dia of 300 mm 450 mm = 30 m b) Pipe dia of 500 mm 900 mm = 40 m c) Pipe dia of 1000 mm 1800 mm = 50 m
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However, additional manholes are to be provided on junctions of the street avoiding standard distance.
4.7.2 Scrapper Manholes

For sewers of diameters 600 mm and above, scraper manholes can be provided at major junctions and at 135m centre to centre. Scraper manhole openings will be of minimum 900 to 1200mm sizes to permit lowering of sewer cleaning equipment.
4.7.3 Ventilation Shafts

Ventilation shafts need to be provided at the start of the sewer and along the sewers at about 225 m interval. M.S. Ventilation shafts are recommended, as they are long lasting and chances of theft are minimal.
4.8 Sewage Pumping Stations

4.8.1 Types
The following types of pumps are used for sewage Horizontal centrifugal pumps with flooded suction installed in the dry well Vertical pumps with pumps submerged in the wet well and the motor on a high level platform with connecting vertical shaft. Fully submersible pumps where motor is housed in the pump in submerged unit.
4.8.2 Design Considerations

Solid handling capacity: Inspite of the provision of screens, the impeller clearance has to be sufficient to handle solids entering the pumps accidentally. Usually, horizontal centrifugal pumps can handle solids upto 75 mm size and submersible pumps can handle solids upto 100 mm. Ease of Installation: Horizontal pump installations are more rigid and complicated where as submersible pump installation is flexible and simple. Cost of civil works: Horizontal pumps require separate dry well and civil works are expensive. Submersible installations are cheaper. Land requirement: Land requirement is less for submersible pump installation. Easy to Operate and Maintenance Less Power Intensive
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4.9 Sewage Treatment Plant
Typical Flow Diagram for Sewage Treatment Plant
4.9.1 Plant and Process Design Parameter
Sr. No 1
Item
Convention al activated Sludge process 85-92 60-90
Convention al Trickling Filter
Oxidation Ditch
Facultative aerated lagoon
Waste stabilisat ion ponds
UASB reactor process
Performance BOD removal (%) Coliform removal(%) Land Requirement( m2/capitat excluding post treatment) Energy Requirement KWH/Person/Y ear
80-90 60-90
95-98 60-90
75-85 60-90
75-85 60-99.9
75-85 Insignificant
0.18-0.25
0.20-0.30
0.15-0.20
0.30-0.40
2.0-2.8
0.15-0.20
12-15
7-11 Trickling filter arms, recycle pumps, sludge scrappers, thickeners, digester equipments,
16-19
12-15
nil
Equipment Requirement
Aerators, recycle pumps, scrapers, Thickener, Digester, Dryer, Gas equipment
Aerators, recycle pimps
Aerators
nil
Pumps, gas collection equipment
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Sr. No
Item
Convention al activated Sludge process Skilled
Convention al Trickling Filter
Oxidation Ditch
Facultative aerated lagoon
Waste stabilisat ion ponds
UASB reactor process Simpler than activated sludge 24 0.72
5 6
Level of Supervision
Skilled
Simplest
Cost(in lacs) Capital cost 35 25 /MLD O&M 1.5 0.75 Cost/MLD/Year Source: Master Plan of Somdrup Jonkha Bhutan, 2007
15 1.25
9 1.25
General
The Plant shall be designed, selected and installed taking into account site ambient conditions, local conditions and location. The following site conditions shall apply ambient temperature (plant room) - 35oC annual average temperature - 30oC Relative humidity (maximum) - 75% Altitude - 125 m site conditions - semi-arid
The plant shall be designed for an ambient temperature of 40 C and making due allowance in his designs for the increased temperatures experienced by Plant exposed to direct sunlight.
Works Life Expectancy

The life expectancy at the treatment plant design is as follows: concrete structures 60 years; mechanical plant 25 years; electrical plant 25 years; buried earth electrode systems 50 years; control panels 25 years; external instrumentation systems 15 years; Computer systems 12 years.
4.9.2 Process Design Parameters

A. Elevated Inlet chamber and plant by-pass
Inlet chamber shall be adequately sized to receive sewage from pumping main and to provide plant bye pass having peak hydraulic carrying capacity of 114.75 mld plant bypass shall be designed to attain 0.9 m/sec to 1.5 m/sec velocity at peak flow duly considering the available hydraulic head at the plant from inlet
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chamber to discharge point. Hydraulic Detention Time shall be 60 seconds minimum at peak flow.
B. Elevated screen chamber

a) b) Peak flow (Design flow) Average flow 114.75 51 Two screen in parallel, each to deal with peak flow and c) Number of Screens incline at 60 to horizontal and mechanically cleaned/ raked. d) Number of channels Velocity e) channel Max in during velocity approach average through 0.4 m/ sec Two screen channels, each designed for peak flow. mld mld
flow (minimum) f) screen at peak flow Flats of screen Tapered in g) the direction of flow (front x back x depth ) h) i) Clear opening between two flats at back Free board above TWL 12 mm 0.5 m 10 mm x 8 mm x 75 mm 1.2 m/sec
Source: DPR of Drainage and STP for Rajkot City
C. Elevated Grit Chamber

a) b) Peak flow Average flow 114.75 51 Three c) Number of grit chambers grit chambers to be 2+1 Nos each for half of peak flow designed for handling the 1.5 times the peak flow and (two working and one standby unit of similar size). d) e) f) g) Specific gravity of grit Size of particles equal to and above which are to be removed 100% Quantity of grit in sewage Horizontal flow h) Temperature (design) of sewage 18 C velocity in grit 0.30 m/sec chamber not to exceed at peak 0.1 m3/m1 0.15 mm 2.45 mld mld
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i) j)
Filed
correction
factor
for
surface loading Detention time (minimum) Minimum depth of wall in grit chamber mm) at outlet weir
0.80 60 sec
k)
excluding corner filling of 300 Organic matter in washed grit not to exceed Free board above TWL
0.9
l) m)
3 0.5
% m
D. Primary Settling tank

a) b) Peak flow Average flow Excess sludge, filtrate and supernatant shall be added in distribution chamber c) of primary settling tank as per plan and grease and oil separately disposed off Two unit each to deal with 25.50 mld flow plus other d) Number of circular tanks flow (excess sludge, filtrate, sludge, supernatant) e) f) g) Surface loading (effective) at average flow + other flow Surface loading at peak flow Detention time at average flow 2.25 hours excluding Hopper bottom volume, but including other flows h) i) j) k) l) m) n) Side water depth minimum (up to top of weir) Slope of hopper bottom Weir loading at avg. flow + other flows (not to exceed) Weir loading at peak flow + other flows (not to exceed) BOD 3 @27 C removal in PST (min) Suspended solids removal in primary settling tank (min) Solids concentration in primary sludge 3.0 I V to 12 H 150 370 40 60 5 m3/day/m m3/day/m % % % m 35 80 m3/day/m2 m3/day/m2 filtrate, layout will be 114.75 51 mld mld
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Note: All piping/channels and launder of primary settling a) tank shall be designed for peak flow including any other flows as per layout plan with minimum velocity of 0.6 m/sec at average flow. All peripheral launder of primary settling tank shall b) c) d) be designed for peak flow with velocity of 0.9 m/sec and any other flow as per layout plan. 0.5 50 m mm Free Board of peripheral launder (minimum) Free fall in peripheral launder /trough with respect to weir crest (bottom-most portion of V Notch).
E. Aeration Tank
a) b) Peak flow Average flow 114.75 51 One c) Number of tanks tank with two compartments to deal with avg. flow plus all other flow as per Detention time at average flow + d) 25% of avg. flow return sludge + all other flows as per f) g) h) i) j) k) l) m) n) o) p) volume (check) MLSS in aeration tank MLVSS in aeration tank Food to micro-organism ratio (F/M) (i.e. kg BOD5 @ 27C/kg MLVSS) Sludge age (c) minimum Free board above TWL Oxygen requirement Oxygen transfer required at layout plan. 0.3 0.6 2000 mg/1 80% of MLSS 0.2-0.4 10 days 1.0 m 1 kg O2 /kg of BOD 3 @ 27 c removed 2.0 1.5 1.22 0.015-0.026 Kg/ kW. Hr. mg/1 kg O2/KWhr KW/m3 Kg BOD 3 27c loading/m3 of tank Six hours minimum layout plan. mld mld
standard condition (min) Dissolved oxygen to be maintained in the aeration tank (minimum) Field transfer rate of aerators (minimum) FTR Mixing requirement of KW
All other flow reaching the tank as per
layout plan shall be considered in the design.
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F. Secondary Settling tank

a) b) Peak flow Average flow 114.75 51 Two units each to deal with c) Number of circular tanks & their capacity requirement 25.5 mld flow + return sludge + filtrate + supernatant + excess sludge. [as per plan] Surface d) loading (effective) at 28 m3/day/m2 average flow + all other flows + return sludge. Detention time excluding hopper e) bottom volume but including other flows (minimum) f) g) Side water depth (minimum) up to top of weir Hopper bottom slope Weir loading at avg. flow + other flows h) Upflow (by providing near weirs weir as at required). velocity average flow (not to exceed) i) j) k) Solids concentration in secondary sludge Solids loading rate at average flow based on MLSS Solids loading rate at peak flow based on MLSS (not to exceed) 7 1% 70-140 210 kg/day/m2 kg/day/m2 m3/hour/m 3.5 1 V to 12 H 185-370 m3/day/m m 2 Hours layout mld mld
All pipes/channel to secondary settling tanks shall a) be designed for peak flow including other flows as per b) c) d) layout plan layout 0.50 m 0.05 m All weir and troughs of secondary settling tanks shall be designed for peak flows as per plan with velocity of 0.9 m/sec. Free board (minimum) Free fall in peripheral launder /trough with respect to weir crest (bottom-most portion of V Notch).
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G. Digesters
a)
b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l) m) n) o) p)
Raw sludge (primary + secondary) solids concentration

Volatile solids Specific gravity of raw sludge Volatile solids destroyed during digestion (min) Temperature of digestion Detention time for digestion @ stated Temperatures Addl. HRT for monsoon period Solids concentration in digested sludge Number of units required Solids loading Bottom hopper slope Mixing system Gas flow required for gas mixing Compressor operating capacity Velocity gradient Sludge circulation velocity Power level to be maintained Gas lances required
4
50% 1.07 60 30 30 15 8 2 0.75 1 V to 4 H Gas mixing unconfined 0.005 1 50-80 0.05-0.10 5 15-35
% C days days % nos. kg VSS/day/m3
m3/m3.min(min) m3/hr.m2 (min) Sec-1 m/sec Watts/m3 (min.) Sq. mt / No.
H. Gas Holder
a) b) c) d) e) Gas production in sludge digester Gas is to be utilized in plant. Storage capacity of gas. Gas to be burnt Number of units required 0.9 Future (not in present contract) 1 100% 2 nos day m3/kg destroyed of VSS
I. Sludge Drying Beds

a) b) c) d) e) f) Preferred size of each bed. Depth of digested sludge application on the drying beds. Cycle time of drying including restoring to original state of original state of bed. Solids concentration of dried sludge prior to application on bad. Moisture concentration of dried sludge amenable for spading and carting away. Standby beds required 20 m x 20m 0.3 12 8 40 2 m days % % at 40 C nos.
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J. Raw sludge pumping station

a) b) c) d) Sludge concentration Specific gravity of sludge Actual pumping hours for sludge pumping per day Minimum diameter of pumping main to avoid chock age. Hydraulic Retention Time for raw sludge during e) f) maximum concentration of 2000 mg/l at peak flow SWD for storage sump below pipe invert level 2 m 2 hour 5 1.07 As required 200 hrs/day mm %
K. Return sludge pumping station

a) b) Quantity of return sludge Concentration return sludge Hydraulic Retention Time for c) return sludge during normal rate of pumping (25%) d) Specific sludge Minimum e) age. f) SWD for storage sump below pipe invert level 2 m diameter of 200 mm pumping main to avoid chock gravity of return 1.02 1 hour of solids in Up to 75% of avg. Flow + excess sludge 1 %
L. Filtrate pumping station

a) b) c) Solid concentration in filtrate Minimum main SWD for storage sump below pipe invert level diameter of pumping 200-300 150 2 mg/1 mm m
M. Pipeline
a) b) Pipeline for Main plant by pass from inlet chamber to final disposal point Pipeline from distribution chamber ahead of PST to main plant bypass
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c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k)
Pipeline from distribution chamber ahead of aeration tank to main plant bypass Treated effluent pipeline from SST to common collection chamber and pipeline from common collection chamber to final disposal point Channel From inlet chamber to screen chamber Channel from Screen chamber to grit chamber. Channel from Grit chamber to parshall flume. Pipeline from distribution chamber of PST to PST Central feed well Pipeline from PST outlet to distribution chamber of aeration tank Pipeline from outlet of Aeration Tank to of central feed well SST Washout for aeration tank shall be provided and connected to bypass line for emptying the unit by gravity with a minimum size of 450 mm dia DI, K-9 class pipeline with valve of same size
Standard indicated in table below are for treated sewage to be disposed into inland water bodies e.g. River However these standards vary as per the geographical location of the town
Sample Effluent from PST Compliance Requirement BOD < 150 mg/1 SS < 250 mg/1 BOD < 20 mg/1 Effluent from SST SS < 30 mg/1 pH 6 to 9
Refer Guidelines and Specification for Civil, Mechanical and Electrical works which are provided in CD
5.0 Storm Water Drainage

5.1 Introduction
The purpose of providing storm water drains is to carry the rainfall (storm) runoff from the terraces, paved courtyards, footpaths, roads etc. of the developed area; so that the occurrence of flooding is reduced to the acceptable frequencies. Storm run off is that portion of the rainfall which drains over the ground surface. The estimation of such runoff reaching the storm water drains therefore is dependent on the intensity and duration of rainfall, characteristics of the drainage area and time required for such flow to reach the storm water drains. Storm water drains are not designed for the peak flow of rare occurrence of rainfall such as once in 10 years or more; but it is necessary to provide sufficient capacity to avoid too frequent flooding of the drainage area. There may be some flooding when the precipitation exceeds the design value, which has to be
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permitted.
The frequency of such permissible flooding may vary from place to Though such
place, depending upon the characteristics of the drainage area. considering the economy in the cost
flooding causes inconvenience, it may have to be accepted once in a while,
The estimation of such runoff reaching the storm water drains therefore is dependent on: Intensity and duration of rainfall Characteristics of the drainage area Time required for such flow to reach the storm water drains.
Estimation of Run off The runoff reaching the drain is given by the rational method viz. Q = 10 CIA Where,Q is the runoff in m3 / hour C is the coefficient of runoff I is the intensity of rainfall in mm / hour A is the area of drainage zone in hectares Storm frequency considered for the design is adopted as frequency of once a year. In absence of data from IMD, based on general equation by British Ministry of Health, the intensity of rainfall adopted for the design is 20 mm / hour and the duration of storm (t) in minutes, expressed by the mathematical formula adopted is as under : i = 1000 t + 20 Source: Sanitary Engineering by Prof. Vinayak N. Gharpure From this formula, for different values of intensities, corresponding values oft are worked out. These values of i &t are plotted on graph and the values of intensity (i) can be determined for any given time of concentration (tc) i.e. tc = inlet time + time of flow in the drain tc = t(i) + t(f) The portion of rainfall which finds its way to the drains is dependent on the imperviousness and the shape of the drainage area, apart from the duration of storm. The percentage of imperviousness for built-up area is considered as 90% and for the open area is considered as 20%. estimated. Therefore, the weighted average imperviousness of the drainage area for the flow, concentrating at a point is
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Diameter wise Length of Storm Water Drain Pipes in meter Besides, as required by the client, the storm water drains are proposed on both sides of the roads; so that road cutting is avoided while giving consumer connection to the plot holders. For the collection and disposal of storm water, RCC pipes are proposed as storm water drains. Manholes are proposed on straight stretches of pipe drains at distance of 30 m, staggered on both sides of drains. Besides, additional manholes are also provided at change of direction of drains as well as size of drainpipes. Catch pits, outlet structures are also proposed at various locations to collect and discharge the storm water in the drainage system.
5.2 Design Methodology

The following steps are followed for design of storm water drainage: First of all the length and area to be served by each pipe is worked out. Total area is assumed as divided in two parts; 50% built-up area and 50% open area. The percentage of imperviousness for built-up area is considered as 90% and for open area is considered as 20%. From this total impervious area is found out. Time of inlet (TI) is taken 25 minutes (Range is 5 to 30 minutes in CPHEEO Manual). Time of flow (TF) is found out considering velocity of flow 1 m/s. Time of concentration (TC) = TI + TF. From graph of I TC, I is found out and from graph of C TC, C is found out. (See Annexure No. 1 & Annexure No. 2) From all this runoff reaching the drain is given by Q = 10 CIA. Where Q = Runoff in m3/hour C = Coefficient of runoff I = Intensity in mm / hour A = Area in hectares From Q diameter is selected depending upon the availability of ground slope and Mannings Formula. Q = 1 x (0.2693 x 10-6) D8/3 x S n Where n = Mannings co-efficient of roughness (consider 0.015) D = Diameter of pipeline in mm S = Slope of pipeline Q = Flow in MLd
1/2
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5.3 Design of under ground Strom Water Network

5.3.1 Modified Rational Method
To design pipe or channel sizes and gradients using a version of the Rational Method. Gradients are designed to give adequate self-cleansing velocities and dry weather or storm flows. Sizes are designed using the rational formula to take the peak flows. The system may include overflow structures and detention storage. The program can calculate the required volume of storage. This is the simplest method in the package. In the event of less scanty/less rainfall data availability the rational formula has given should be used for design of storm water drainage network.
5.3.2 Hydrograph Design Method

To size pipes or channels for observed or synthetic rainfall events in a network with defined layout and levels. The network may include overflows, storage tanks and pumping stations. The method is a hydrograph routing method, which designs the pipes to take the peak flow.
5.3.3 Simulation Method

To simulate time varying flow with surface flooding or surcharge for observed or synthetic rainfall events in an existing or designed sewerage network. The network may include overflows, storage tanks pumping stations, and flap valves. The models, which go to make up the methods, are shown in the table 5.1 Table 5.1: Models for Different Methods of under ground storm water drainage Model
Rainfall
Method Rational
Intensity duration relationship Rainfall hyetographs
Hydrograph Simulation
Runoff Overland flow Pipe Channel and
UK Wallingford runoff model Fixed runoff coefficients SCS runoff model Time of entry peak flows pipe full velocity Linear reservoir model MuskingumCunge Overflows Pumps On-line and Off-line storage Muskingum-Cunge Backwater Overflows Pumps On-line & Off-line storage Tide levels Flap valves Surcharge
Ancillary structures
Overflows On-line storage
Source:
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6.0 Solid Waste Management

6.1 Key Features MSW Rules 2000
The government of India / Ministry of Environment and Forest have modified Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling Rules) 2000 for the effective and scientific management of solid waste.
6.2 Composition of waste

Solid waste generation is mainly from domestic, trade, commercial, agricultural and industrial activities and from public services. In Indian cities, it is a combination of various heterogeneous waste materials a mixture of vegetable and organic matter and inert matter such as glass, metal, stones, ashes, textiles, wood, grass, and so forth. Its main sources are residential premises, business establishments and street sweepings. The composition and quantity of per capital generation of waste varies with living standards of population viz. high/low/middle are presented in table 6.1 Indian mixed waste has a large proportion of compostable material and inert materials. The Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization (CPHEEO) have published a comprehensive manual on municipal solid waste management for the guidance of ULBs. Physical and Chemical characteristics of municipal solid waste in Indian cities are presented in table 6.1 and table 6.2 Table6.1: Physical Characteristics of Municipal Solid Wastes in Indian Cities Population Range (in million)
0.1 to 0.5 0.5 to 1.0 1.0 to 2.0 2.0 to 5.0 >5
Number Of Cities Surveyed

12 15 9 3 4
Paper
Rubber, Leather And Synthetics

0.78 0.73 0.71 0.48 0.28
Glass
Metals
Total Compostable matter

44.57 40.04 38.95 56.67 30.84
Inert
Percentage 2.91 2.95 4.71 3.18 6.43 0.56 0.35 0.46 0.48 0.94 0.33 0.32 0.49 0.59 0.8 43.59 48.38 44.73 49.07 53.9
Source: Background material for Manual on SWM, NEERI, 1996
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Table 6.2: Chemical Characteristics of Municipal Solid Wastes in Indian Cities

Population Range (in million) Number Of Cities Surveyed Moisture Percentage Organic matter Nitrogen as Total Nitrogen Phosphorous as P2O5 Potassium as K2O C/N Ratio Calorific value* in kcal/kg
0.1 to 0.5 0.5 to 1.0 1.0 to 2.0 2.0 to 5.0 >5
12 15 9 3 4
25.81 19.52 26.98 21.03 38.72
37.09 25.14 26.89 25.6 39.07
0.71 0.66 0.64 0.56 0.56
0.63 0.56 0.82 0.69 0.52
0.83 0.69 0.72 0.78 0.52
30.94 21.13 23.68 22.45 30.11
1009.89 900.61 980.05 907.18 800.7
Quantity of waste India produces about 42 million tons of urban solid waste annually. The current municipal solid waste generation is estimated to be approximately 0.4 kilograms per person per day. Waste generation ranges from 0.2 kilograms to 0.6 kilograms per capita per day in cities ranging from 1 lakh to more than 50 lakh population.
Table 6.3 Quantity of Municipal Solid Waste in Indian Urban Centres Population Range (in million)
< .1 0.1 to 0.5 0.5 to 1.0 1.0 to 2.0 2.0 to 5.0 >5
Number Of Urban Centres (Sample)

328 255 31 14 6 3
Total population (in million)

68.3 56.914 21.729 17.184 20.597 26.306
Average per capita value (kg/capita/day)

0.21 0.21 0.25 0.27 0.35 0.5
Density of waste Knowledge of the density of a waste i.e. its mass per unit volume (kg/m3) is essential for the design of all elements of the solid waste management system viz. Community storage, transportation and disposal. For example, in high income countries, considerable benefit is derived through the use of compaction vehicles on collection routes, because the waste is typically of low density. A reduction of volume of 75% is frequently achieved with normal compaction equipment, so that an initial density of 100 kg/m3 will readily be increased to 400 kg/m3. In other words, the vehicle would haul four times the weight of waste in the compacted state than when the waste is loose. The situation in low-income countries is quite different: a high initial density of waste precludes the achievement of high compaction ratio. Consequently, compaction vehicles offer little or no advantage and are not cost-effective.
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Moisture Content Moisture content of solid wastes is usually expressed as the weight of moisture per unit weight of wet material. Moisture Content (%) =
Wet weight dry weight wet weight x100
A typical range of moisture contents is 20 45% representing the extremes of wastes in an arid climate and in the wet season of a region having large precipitation. Values greater than 45% are however not uncommon. Moisture increases the weight of solid waste and therefore the cost of collection and transport. Consequently, waste should be insulated from rainfall or other extraneous water.
6.3 Collection of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

Following steps are involved in collection of Solid Waste: Littering of Municipal Solid waste shall be prohibited in cities, towns and urban areas. Organize collection of waste from houses (including those in slums and squatter settlements), hotels, restaurants, office complexes, and commercial areas through any of the methods such as community bin collection, door to door collection, collection on regular pre-informed timings and schedule by using bell ringing/musical vehicle. Manage biodegradable wastes from slaughter houses, vegetable markets, and so on by recycling them. Avoid mixing biomedical wastes and industrial wastes with municipal solid wastes and complying with separate rules prescribed for them. Collected waste shall be transferred to community bin through containerized hand carts or other small vehicles. Horticultural and construction/demolition waste or debris shall be disposed off following proper norms. Waste of any sort should not be burnt. Municipal authority shall notify waste collection schedule and method to be adopted for public benefit in a city or a town.
6.4 Segregation of Municipal Solid Waste

Encourage citizens to segregate waste at the source and promote recycling or reuse of segregated materials by organizing awareness programmes. Ensure community participation in waste segregation by arranging quarterly meetings with representatives of local residents welfare associations and NGOs.
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6.5 Storage of Municipal Solid Waste

The municipal authorities are required to establish and maintain hygienic and sanitary storage facilities by taking these steps: Create storage facilities in accordance with waste generation and population densities and should be placed such that it can be easily accessed by the users. Not exposing storage facilities to the open environment and maintaining them in an aesthetically acceptable and user-friendly manner. Storage facilities are to have a design that is easy to operate for handling, transfer, and transport of waste. Bins for storage of biodegradable waste shall be painted green, for recyclable waste the bins shall be painted white and for storage of other wastes the bins shall be painted black. Manual handling of waste is prohibited. If unavoidable due to constraints, it should be carried out with precaution and due safety of workers should be ensured.
6.6 Transport of Municipal Solid Waste

Vehicles used for transportation of waste shall be covered so as to prevent scattering of waste, being non visible to public, not creating nuisance due to bad odour ad remaining unexposed to open environment. Storage facilities set up my municipal authorities shall be daily attended for clearing of wastes. The bins or containers wherever placed, should be emptied and/or replaced before they start overflowing. Transportation vehicles shall be designed such that multiple handling of waste prior to its disposal is avoided.
6.7 Processing of Municipal Solid Waste

Municipal authorities shall adopt suitable technology or combination of such technologies to make use of waste thereby lessening the burden on landfills. Following criteria shall be adopted: Biodegradable waste shall be processed by composting, vermin-composting, anaerobic digestion or any other biological processing for stabilizing the waste. The end product of any of these processes shall comply with the standards as mentioned in Schedule IV of MSW Rules 2000. Mixed waste containing recoverable resources shall follow the route of recycling, incineration with or without energy recovery.
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6.8 Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste

Land filling shall be restricted to non-biodegradable, inert waste and other waste that are not suitable either for recycling or for biological processing. Land filling shall be carried out for residues of waste processing facilities as well as pre-processing rejects from waste processing facilities. Land filling of mixed waste shall be avoided unless the same is found unsuitable for waste processing.
6.9 Design System for SWM

Calculate household in the area based as per Capita Waste Generation Calculate weight of waste generated from H/H waste Decide density of Waste generated. Calculate Volume = Weight waste Density Segregate waste 40% Wet and 60% Dry Litter bins at 50 to 100 mt. distant from H/H., 1 tricycle for 300 to 400 shops required.; 1 handcart for 15 to 50 H/H ; 1 Auto tripper for 1000 H/H = Population per capita
6.10 Street sweeping

Derive the Total road length and covert it in single lane. 1 labour can sweep 750 mt. per single lane Primary container capacity to be taken 40 liter to 100 liter. Calculate primary collector container
6.11 Secondary storage

Capacity of Secondary container 1 cmt 2 cmt volume volume
3 cmt volume 4 cmt volume Calculate secondary containers = [(Projected Population 0.210)Density] Decided container
6.12 Sample Financial Estimates for implementation of Solid Waste Management Plan
Total population (2001) : 30,871 Total population (2005) : 38,097 Total Households (HHs) : 8466 (Household size : 4.5) ( as per above HH size) (Source: Economical Survey, NSSO,2002)
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Non-Slum HHs Slum HHs
: 7485 : 981
(Source: Property Tax data, 2005) ( Above No 3. No. 4 )
Solid waste generation (2005) Assuming one person generates 220 gm / day : 8.38 tonnes /day Assuming 30 % extra for other institutes : 10.89 tonnes/day
A. Total waste generation: 11 Tonnes per day

The Solid Waste management includes the following components:
Door to door waste collection from all residential and commercial area Street sweeping Secondary storage of wastes at fixed locations on streets Transportation of waste from secondary storage points to the landfill site Disposal, Composting of waste
B. Door to door waste collection from all residential and commercial area a. Collection of waste from non-slum residential HHs In this areas, Tricycles and Auto tippers will be provided. Total HH = 7485 One Auto tipper can collect waste from 1000 HHs. If 3 auto tippers are provided : no of HH covered : 3000 One Tricycle can collect waste from 300 HHs. No of Tricycles required = 4485 / 300 = 14.95 = 15
Auto tipper = 3 Tricycle = Workers = 15 18
b. Door to door waste collection from slum areas In this area, community bins of capacity 40 liters will be provided for every 15 HHs. No of HHs = 981 No of community bins required = 981 / 15 = 65.4 To empty those bins, 3 handcarts will be provided.
Handcarts = 3 Workers =3 Community bins = 65
c. Door to door collection from commercial areas In this area, tricycles will be provided which will cover, 400 shops each. Total shops (commercial properties) = 1773 (source: Property tax data, 2005)
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No of tricycles required = 1773 / 400 = 4.43 = 5

Tricycles = 5 Workers = 5
Assuming 3 km stretch of roads covered by commercial area, where litterbins of 40 liters capacity each, will be provided to collect the waste generated by the passer-by. Providing one litterbin per 60 meters of road length. No of litterbins required = 3000 / 60 = 50 nos.
Litterbins = 50
C. Street Sweeping: The roads in the whole town will be divided into 4 categories as per the requirement of sweeping: Total road length in town: 65 km (including NH no 8) One Sweeper will sweep 1000 RML (running meter length) of road per day. Road Class
A B C D
Frequency cleaning
Daily Twice a week Once a week Once a fortnight
of
RML for sweeping KM

12 18 30 5
Workers required
= 12 = (18 * 2 )/6 = 6 = (30*1)/6 = 5 = (5 * 0.5 )/6 = 0.41 = 1
Workers Handcarts Brooms = 24
= 24 = 24
Supadi, patra = 24 Community bins = 65
D.Secondary storage of wastes at fixed locations on streets Assuming 60 % of the total waste generated to be wet waste = 6.6 tonnes/day Dry waste = 4.4 Tonnes/day Providing containers of size 4 cum (storage capacity = 1.6 tonnes) for wet waste collection and of size 2 cum (storage capacity = 0.8 tonnes) for dry waste collection. Number of containers required = 4 cum size : 4 + 2 (extra for replacement) = 6 2 cum size : 6 + 2 (extra for replacement) = 8
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Containers: Size 4 cum = 6 Size 2 cum = 8
E. Transportation of waste from secondary storage points to the landfill site

Two tractors will be deployed for the collection of waste from above containers as well as bulk generators and other sources as per requirement. Tractors = 2
Staff requirement: Existing Staff: 48
Table 6.5: Requirement of Workers Sr No

1 2 3 4 5
Activity
Door to Door collection of waste (Res+com) Waste collection from slums Street Sweeping Transportation (2 vehicles) Absentees (8 %) Total
No of workers
18 + 5 3 24 8 4 62
Primary Collection
No of workers required = 62 48 = 14
Table 6.6: Financial Estimates Units to be procured (units required available) Total Cost
Activity
Equipment required
No of units required
Rate / unit
PRIMARY WASTE COLLECTION

DTD Collection Non-slum HHs Tricycle Auto tippers DTD Slum HH collection Handcarts (with 6 containers) Tricycle 15 3 3 5 7,980 1,00,000 5,310 7,980 15 3 3 5 1,19,700 3,00,000 15,930 39,900
DTD collection Commercial
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Sub -Total CONTAINERS For Wet waste 4 cum capacity For Dry waste 2 cum capacity Commercial area Slum Area Container placement Container Container Litterbins Community bins Platform 6 8 50 65 6 35,000 23,000 300 300 2000 Subtotal 6 8 50 65 6
4,75,530
2,10,000 1,84000 15000 19,500 12,000 4,40,500
STREET SWEEPING
Handcarts Brooms Supadi Patra 24 24 24 30 35 Subtotal Total 9,16,030
(Please note that the cost Shown above is indicative and may vary from place to place)
6.13 Design Criteria of Landfill Site Selection

The term landfill is used to describe a unit operation for final disposal of Municipal Solid Waste on land, designed and constructed with the objective of minimum impact to the environment by Incorporating eight essential components as described by CPHEEO Manual, 2000. This term encompasses other terms such as secured landfill and engineered landfills which are also Sometimes applied to municipal solid waste (MSW) disposal units. The term landfill can be treated as synonymous to sanitary landfill of Municipal Solid Waste, only if the latter is designed on the Principle of waste containment and is characterized by the presence of a liner and leachate collection system to prevent ground water contamination. Land filling will be done for the following types of waste: Co-mingled waste (mixed waste) not found suitable for waste processing; Pre-processing and post-processing rejects from waste processing sites; Non-hazardous waste not being processed or recycled. Land filling will usually not be done for the following waste streams in the municipal solid
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Sample Terms of References for Design of landfill site & EIA sets for following objectives _ To visit the proposed site, in order to assess whether the site confirms to the preliminary location criteria for site identification. To collect the baseline information on the quantity of waste generation, type of waste. To estimate the land area required for the disposal of the solid waste generated for 30 years. To collect the information in and around the proposed site area limited to technical aspects such as Air, Surface Water, Soil, Geology, Hydrogeology and Meteorology To develop surface drainage pattern of the site area at regional and local level in order to ascertain the surface drainage run-on direction as well as magnitude To develop the Land Use & Land Cover Mapping based on Remote Sensing IRS-1C To carry out the Soil Investigation of the proposed site area. To carry out the ambient air quality monitoring in order to ascertain the background contamination level. To carry out the ground water quality monitoring in order to ascertain the background contamination level. To assess potential impacts on all components of environment resulting from the construction & operation of a Municipal Landfill Facility. To carry out Risk Analysis and suggest abatement methods for adverse environmental impacts likely to occur during the operation of Municipal landfill facility.
6.14 Case Study of Rajkot DPR

The detail design of the proposed site is given below. The total area required for the land fill site is mainly depends upon Present population of the city, Population growth rate, Quantity of solid waste generated, Characteristic of the solid waste, The active period for which the solid waste is to be dump, Area required for infrastructural facility.
As per 2001 census the population of the Rajkot city is 10.02 lacs which is growing at the rate of 4.05% annually. As per the house hold survey and actual quantification at Sold Waste Processing plant, it is observed that waste generation in Rajkot city is about 325 gm/capita/day. Integrated Solid Waste Processing Plant at Rajkot is operated by a private operator and is functioning very efficiently since December -2005. It is recorded that about 68 % of total
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waste is being processed and converted in to about energy pallet, manure green cock and eco bricks. Rajkot Municipal Corporation Landfill Estimation of the area, height and capacity required for land fill site. ( Pl. refer CPHEEO Manual Annexure: 17.1 ) Present population = 1243250 Average annual Growth rate = 4.00% Design active period =30 years. Present waste generation = 325 gms /capita /day Total waste generation per year at present = 1243250*325* 365/(1000*1000) = 147480 tones Total biodegradable waste goes to processing plant is 68 % of total waste = 147480 *0.68 tones = 100286 tones Total non biodegradable waste goes to land fill site
is 32% of total waste. = 147480 * 0.32 = 47194 tones
Estimated rate of increase = 4.00% (as same as popul.Growth )

Proposed life of land fill in year = 30
Waste generated after 30 years = 153068 tones Total waste generated after 30 years = 3003929 tones Total volume of waste in 30 years (taking density
of the waste is 0.90 t/cum. As inert waste is more) = 3003929/0.85 = 3534034 cum.
Total volume of daily cover in 30 years Taking 10 cm. soil cover for lift ht. 1.5m. = 0.1 * 3534034
= 353403 cum.
Total volume req. for liner system & cover system

assuming 1.5mt. thick liner and 1mt. thick cover system
and allowing the total ht. 10mt. so taking k = 0.25 = 0.25 * 3534034
= 883508cum.
Volume likely to become available within 10 years Due to settlement, as waste having more inert material Taking m =0.05 = 0.05 * 3534034
= 176701 cum.
First estimate of landfill capacity = 3534034+353403+883508-176701 = 4594244 cum. Area required for land filling for 10mt. ht. = 4594244/10 = 459424 sq.mt. Area required for infrastructural facility = 15% of land filling area = 0.15 * 459424 = 68914sq.mt.
Total area required = 459424 + 68914 = 528338 sq.mt. Total area required in hectare = 528338/10000 = 52.83 hectare Say = 53 hectare
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6.15 Environmental Settings

POTENTIAL LANDFILL SITE IDENTIFICATION: In order to select a site for conducting detailed Environmental Impact Assessment, one site was identified in the beginning as potential sites for waste disposal. The description of the site is as under: Site No: 01 Name of the Site: Nakaravadi Location: Near Pipalia Village Survey No: 222/P Total Land Area = 80 Hectare
LOCATION / KNOCK OUT CRITERIA A Location Criteria given in Guidelines developed for the Management of Municipal Waste by the Ministry of Urban Development was used to select the site on prima facie as the first step of site assessment and investigation. The objective of this step is to exclude the areas, which can be discarded for the setting up of landfill. The selection of an appropriate site for a landfill is dependent on several criteria, some of which absolutely exclude the possibility of establishing a landfill in certain sites. The following key factors are considered in evaluating these criteria: Historical, religious or other important cultural sites or heritage Existing or planned drinking water protection and catchments areas High flood prone area Area with unstable ground like swamps, moors and / or marshes Areas with an extreme morphology (steep slopes, danger of landslides or avalanches etc.) Areas endangered by swallow holes, collapse sites, deep digging etc. Areas nearer than 500 meters to populated areas Closer than 100 meters to river boundaries Areas nearer than 20 km to airports National parks, nature protection areas and nature monuments, areas with a large number of fauna and flora
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References
Manual of Ministry of Road Transport and Highway (MORTH) Indian Road Congress (IRC codes) IRC 86-1983 Geometric Design for Urban Roads in Plains IRC 81-1997 Flexible Road Pavements BIS code 2720 various parts for tests on soils BIS Code 2386 various parts for tests on aggregates Manual on Water Supply and Treatment Plant third edition revised - 1999 constituted by CPHEEO- Central Public Health and Environment Engineering Organization, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi, G.O.I Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment second edition 1993 constituted by CPHEEO- Central Public Health and Environment Engineering Organization, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi, G.O.I Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 Manual on Solid Waste Management- First edition 2000 constituted by CPHEEO- Central Public Health and Environment Engineering Organization, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi, G.O.I Detailed Project Report for Water Supply of Rajkot Municipal Corporation Detailed Project Report for Drainage and STP of Rajkot Municipal Corporation Detailed Project Report for SWM of Rajkot Municipal Corporation
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Module 2.

1.1 Steps for Design

1.1.1 Demand Assessment

1.1.2 Detailed Engineering Design

Module 2.3: Project Design

1.2 Standard Manuals for Reference

1.2.2 Water Supply Projects

1.2.3 Sewerage Projects

1.2.4 Solid waste Projects

2.0 Design of Road Projects

JnNURM - Rapid Training Programme Preparation of DPRs

Module 2.3: Project Design

2.1 Road width and Designs Traffic Volumes

Recommended road width in meters

Table 2.2: Equivalency factors for Vehicles Sr. No.

JnNURM - Rapid Training Programme Preparation of DPRs

Module 2.3: Project Design

Source: IRC 19; 2001

2400 1500 3600 4500 4000 3600 6000

Width (meters) 3.5 7.00 7.5 10.5 / 11.0 14.0 21.0

JnNURM - Rapid Training Programme Preparation of DPRs

Module 2.3: Project Design

2.2 Design Approach & Criteria

This structure rests on sub-grade which in turn rests on natural ground.

2.3 Design of Flexible Pavement

2.3.1 Traffic- CV/Day Annual traffic census 24 X 7

2.3.2 Wheel loads

JnNURM - Rapid Training Programme Preparation of DPRs

Module 2.3: Project Design

2.3.4 Terrain Plain or Hilly

2.3.5 Pavement Thickness

2.4 Design Traffic

JnNURM - Rapid Training Programme Preparation of DPRs

Module 2.3: Project Design

D = Lane distribution factor

Lane 1.00 0.75 0.40 0.40 0.45

JnNURM - Rapid Training Programme Preparation of DPRs

Module 2.3: Project Design

2.5 Design Period

2.6 CBR Value

JnNURM - Rapid Training Programme Preparation of DPRs

Module 2.3: Project Design

Higher of two values is adopted as CBR value.

Maximum Variation in CBR Values +1 +2 +3 +5

JnNURM - Rapid Training Programme Preparation of DPRs

Module 2.3: Project Design

Table2.7: Recommended Design for Traffic range 1-10 msa 1

PAVEMENT COMPOSITION Bituminous Surfacing Wearing Course ( mm ) Binder Course ( mm )

JnNURM - Rapid Training Programme Preparation of DPRs

Module 2.3: Project Design

msa given CBR Value

for Total Thickness (mm)

PAVEMENT COMPOSITION Bituminous Surfacing Wearing Course ( mm )

Source: IRC 37; 1998

JnNURM - Rapid Training Programme Preparation of DPRs

Module 2.3: Project Design

Table 2.8: Recommended Design for Traffic range 10 150 msa

JnNURM - Rapid Training Programme Preparation of DPRs

Module 2.3: Project Design

msa for given CBR Value

100 150 CBR 9 % 10 20 30 50 100 150 CBR 10 % 10 20 30 50 100 150

2.7 Other Parameters

Table 2.9: Required Road Widths Number of Persons per Hour.

Reqd. Width Footpath (m)