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Dissection of a lactating breast. 1 Fat 2 Lactiferous duct/lobule 3 Lobule 4 Connective tissue 5 Sinus of lactiferous duct 6 Lactiferous duct Latin Gray's Artery Vein glandula mammaria subject #271 1267 Internal thoracic artery Lateral thoracic artery [1] Internal thoracic vein
Vein
Nerve
Lymph
Precursor
Ectoderm[3]
(cellular elements)
M eSH
A01.236.249
A mammary gland is an organ in female mammals that produces milk to feed young offspring. Mammals get their name from the word "mammary." In humans, the mammary glands are situated in the breasts. In ruminants such as cows, goats, and deer, the mammary glands are contained in the udders. The mammary glands of mammals having more than two breasts, such as dogs and cats, are sometimes called dugs.
Contents
1 Humans 1.1 Histology 1.2 Structure 1.3 Development and hormonal control 1.4 Breast cancer 2 Other mammals 3 Evolution 4 Gallery 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links
Humans
Main article: Breast
Histology
A mammary gland is a specific type of apocrine gland specialized for manufacture of colostrum when giving birth. Mammary glands can be identified as apocrine because they exhibit striking "decapitation" secretion. Many sources assert that mammary glands are modified sweat glands.[4][5][6] Some authors dispute that and argue instead that they are sebaceous glands.[4]
Structure
The basic components of a mature mammary gland are the alveoli (hollow cavities, a few millimeters large) lined with milk-secreting cuboidal cells and surrounded by myoepithelial cells. These alveoli join to form groups known as lobules. Each lobule has a lactiferous duct that drains into openings in the nipple. The myoepithelial cells contract under the stimulation of oxytocin, excreting the milk secreted by alveolar units into the lobule lumen toward the nipple. As the infant
begins to suck, the oxytocin-mediated "let down reflex" ensues and the mother's milk is secreted not sucked from the gland into the baby's mouth. All the milk-secreting tissue leading to a single lactiferous duct is called a "simple mammary gland"; in a "complex mammary gland" all the simple mammary glands serve one nipple. Humans normally have two complex mammary glands, one in each breast, and each complex mammary gland consists of 1020 simple glands. The presence of more than two nipples is known as polythelia and the presence of more than two complex mammary glands as polymastia. Maintaining the correct polarized morphology of the lactiferous duct tree requires another essential component mammary epithelial cells extracellular matrix (ECM) which, together with adipocytes, fibroblast, inflammatory cells, and others, constitute mammary stroma. [7] Mammary epithelial ECM mainly contains myoepithelial basement membrane and the connective tissue. They not only help to support mammary basic structure, but also serve as a communicating bridge between mammary epithelia and their local and global environment throughout this organ's development.[8][9]
cells migration.[17] Whereas, laminin-1 interacts with non-integrin receptor dystroglycan negatively regulates this side branching process in case of cancer.[18] These complex "Yin-yang" balancing crosstalks between mammary ECM and epithelial cells "instruct" healthy mammary gland development until adult. Secretory alveoli develop mainly in pregnancy, when rising levels of prolactin, estrogen, and progesterone cause further branching, together with an increase in adipose tissue and a richer blood flow. In gestation, serum progesterone remains at a stably high concentration so signaling through its receptor is continuously activated. As one of the transcribed genes, Wnts secreted from mammary epithelial cells act paracrinely to induce more neighboring cells' branching.[19][20] When the lactiferous duct tree is almost ready, "leaves" alveoli are differentiated from luminal epithelial cells and added at the end of each branch. In late pregnancy and for the first few days after giving birth, colostrum is secreted. Milk secretion (lactation) begins a few days later due to reduction in circulating progesterone and the presence of another important hormone prolactin, which mediates further alveologenesis, milk protein production, and regulates osmotic balance and tight junction function. Laminin and collagen in myoepithelial basement membrane interacting with beta-1 integrin on epithelial surface again, is essential in this process.[21][22] Their binding ensures correct placement of prolactin receptors on the basal lateral side of alveoli cells and directional secretion of milk into lactiferous ducts.[21][22] Suckling of the baby causes release of the hormone oxytocin, which stimulates contraction of the myoepithelial cells. In this combined control from ECM and systemic hormones, milk secretion can be reciprocally amplified so as to provide enough nutrition for the baby. During weaning, decreased prolactin, missing mechanical stimulation (baby suckling), and changes in osmotic balance caused by milk stasis and leaking of tight junctions cause cessation of milk production. In some species there is complete or partial involution of alveolar structures after weaning, in humans there is only partial involution and the level of involution in humans appears to be highly individual. In some other species (such as cows), all alveoli and secretory duct structures collapse by programmed cell death (apoptosis) and autophagy for lack of growth promoting factors either from the ECM or circulating hormones.[23][24] At the same time, apoptosis of blood capillary endothelial cells speeds up the regression of lactation ductal beds. Shrinkage of the mammary duct tree and ECM remodeling by various proteinase is under the control of somatostatin and other growth inhibiting hormones and local factors.[25] This major structural change leads loose fat tissue to fill the empty space afterward. But a functional lactiferous duct tree can be formed again when a female is pregnant again.
Breast cancer
Tumorigenesis in mammary glands can be induced biochemically by abnormal expression level of circulating hormones or local ECM components,[26] or from a mechanical change in the tension of mammary stroma.[27] Under either of the two circumstances, mammary epithelial cells would grow out of control and eventually result in cancer. Almost all instances of breast cancer originate in the lobules or ducts of the mammary glands.
Other mammals
The constantly protruding breasts of the adult human female, unusually large relative to body size, are a unique evolutionary development whose purpose is not yet fully known (see breasts); other mammals tend to have less conspicuous mammary glands that protrude only while actually filling with milk. The number and positioning of complex and simple mammary glands varies widely in different mammals. The nipples and glands can occur anywhere along the two milk lines, two roughly-parallel lines along the ventral aspect of the body. In general most mammals develop mammary glands in pairs along these lines, with a number approximating the number of young typically birthed at a time. The number of nipples varies from 2 (in most primates) to 18 (in pigs).
The Virginia Opossum has 13, one of the few mammals with an odd number. [28][29] The following table lists the number and position of glands normally found in a range of mammals: Species[30] Goat, sheep, horse guinea pig Cattle Cat Anterior Intermediate Posterior Total (thoracic) (abdominal) (inguinal) 0 0 0 2 2 0 2 6 0 2 4 4 2 or 4 4 4 6 0 2 4 8 8 or 10 10 12 18 2
Male mammals typically have rudimentary mammary glands and nipples, with a few exceptions: male mice do not have nipples, and male horses lack nipples and mammary glands.[citation needed ] The male Dayak fruit bat has lactating mammary glands;[32] male lactation occurs infrequently in some species, including humans. Mammary glands are true protein factories, and several labs have constructed transgenic animals, mainly goats and cows, to produce proteins for pharmaceutical use.[33] Complex glycoproteins such as monoclonal antibodies or antithrombin cannot be produced by genetically engineered bacteria, and the production in live mammals is much cheaper than the use of mammalian cell cultures.
Evolution
The mammary gland is difficult to explain with an evolutionary world-view. The reason for this is because mammary glands are typically required by mammals to feed their young. Which evolved first - the ability for a mammal to give birth, or the ability for a mammal to feed it's newly born young? Nevertheless, there are many theories on how mammary glands evolved, for example, it is believed that the mammary gland is a transformed sweat gland, more closely related to apocrine sweat glands.[34] Since mammary glands do not fossilize well, supporting such theories is difficult. Many of the current theories are based on comparisons between lines of living mammals- monotremes, marsupials and eutherians. One theory proposes that mammary glands evolved from glands that were used to keep the eggs of early mammals moist[35][36] and free from infection[37][38] (monotremes still lay eggs). Other theories propose that early secretions were used directly by hatched young,[39] or that the secretions were used by young to help them orient to their mothers.[40] Lactation is assumed to have developed long before the evolution of the mammary gland and mammals; see evolution of lactation.
Gallery
Cattle
Cat
Pig
Sheep
Goat
Elephant
Human