Process Insulation

Insulation for Cylinder Shapes

Cylinder is perhaps the most important shape in the process industry.
Most process vessels and storage tanks have cylindrical bodies. All process
piping is of course cylindrical.
Like in all other shapes, heat transfer from the cylinder wall to the
exposed insulation surface is by conduction through the insulation layer.
Heat transfer from the exposed insulation surface to the atmosphere is by
convection as well as radiation. Both phenomena are lumped together by
specifying a lumped heat transfer coefficient based on the exposed insulation
surface.
Mathematical Model
A schematic of one side of a cylinder from its axis along with
insulation is shown in the figure with necessary illustration of the
nomenclature.
Cylinder Insulation
0
r
Ins
r
t
vessel
T
Ambient
r
skin
T
T ambient
T
At steady state, the rate of conductive heat transfer at the junction of
cylinder and insulation, at any arbitrary radial position within the insulation,
at the insulation boundary must be the same. Stated mathematically
considering a unit length of the cylinder
1
]
1

dr
dT
r k 2
= constant
for Ins
r r r
0
Therefore,
dr
dT
r
= constant =
1
c
say
Rearranging and integrating,
dT
c r
dr
skin
vessel
Ins
T
T
r
r


1
1
0
( )
skin vessel
Ins
T T
c r
r

1 0
1
ln
Ins
skin vessel
r
r
T T
c
0
1
ln

Similarly,
( )
dT
c r
dr
r T
T
r
r
vessel


1
1
0
( ) [ ] r T T
c r
r
vessel

1 0
1
ln
( )
0
1
ln
r
r
c T r T
vessel
+
Substituting for
1
c
, we get an expression for the radial temperature
profile within the insulation
( )
r
r
r
r
T T
T r T
Ins
skin vessel
vessel
0
0
ln
ln

Note that the temperature profile is linear if a logarithmic scale is used for
r.
Some other simple definitions are listed here for easy reference later.
2
2
0
0 0 0
d
r r d
2
2
Ins
Ins Ins Ins
d
r r d
t r r r r t
Ins Ins
+
0 0
t d d
d d
t
Ins
Ins
2
2
0
0
+

For a given vessel OD, insulation thickness, vessel (and vessel wall)
temperature and the insulation skin temperature, one can thus generate a
temperature profile within the insulation.
What is important from the point of view of design and rating of an
insulation is an estimate of heat loss from the insulation skin. At steady state
performance, rate of transfer of heat by conduction through the insulation at
insulation skin must equal rate of heat transfer by convection and radiation
from the insulation skin to the ambient. If h is a lumped heat transfer
coefficient based on exposed insulation surface, then for a unit length of the
cylinder;

( )
ambient skin Ins
r
Ins
T T r h
dr
dT
r k
Ins
2 2
The L.H.S expression was earlier seen as equal to
1
2 kc
and an
expression for
1
c
was also developed. Substituting that,
( )
ambient skin Ins
Ins
skin vessel
T T h r
r r
T T
k q

2
ln
2
0
=
( )
ambient skin
Ins
T T r h
r
r

0
0
2
The above heat transfer rate per unit length of cylinder (q) is also the
bare surface of the cylinder per unit run multiplied by the heat loss per unit
surface of the cylinder (Q). Or
Q r q
0
2
Substituting this in the above,
( )
Ins
skin vessel
ambient skin
Ins
r
r
k
r
T T
T T
r
r
h Q
0 0
0
ln

Ins
skin vessel
r
r
k
r
Q T T
0 0
ln
h r
r
Q T T
Ins
ambient skin
1
0

Adding the last two equations,
1
]
1

+
h r
r
r
r
k
r
Q T T
Ins Ins
ambient vessel
1
ln
0 0 0
or,
h r
r
r
r
k
r
T T
Q
Ins Ins
ambient vessel
1
ln
0 0 0
+

In terms of diameters, the above becomes

h d
d
d
d
k
d
T T
Q
Ins Ins
ambient vessel
1
ln
2
0 0 0
+

Above is an important relationship as it allows estimating heat loss

from known cylinder OD ( 0
d
) insulation thickness (t) which defines
insulated diameter (
t d d
Ins
2
0
+
), insulating material (known thermal
conductivity (k)), heat transfer coefficient (a function of insulation surface
emissivity, wind speed etc.), vessel temperature and ambient temperature.
This can be directly used for rating the performance of an insulation.
We now have all the ingradients, not only for rating but also for
design of an insulation for a cylindrical shape.
Design of Insulation
As seen earlier, insulation is provided for safety, process and
economic considerations. Depending upon their relevance in a particular
situation one can design an insulation to ensure that
a) the insulation skin temperature is not more than a specified
temperature, or
b) the heat ingress/egress from insulation is not more than a
specified level, or
c) the capital investment in insulation and the cost of energy loss
during operation are economized.
Design procedures for these three criteria are discussed below.
Skin Temperature as Design Criteria
For hot insulation (vessel hotter than the ambient) one would prefer to
ensure that the insulation thickness be adequate enough to ensure that the
skin temperature is not more than a certain safe value (lest the operator
accidentally coming in contact with insulation should be singed). For cold
insulation (vessel at sub-ambient temperature) also, one would like the
insulation skin temperature to be above a certain threshold (dew point of
ambient air) so that there is no condensation of ambient humidity on
insulation surface. For a vessel/pipe carrying process/utility fluid at a given
temperature, insulation design in this case involves recommending
insulation thickness for appropriate insulating material that meets this skin
temperature criteria. Procedure for hot insulation is described below. That
for cold insulation proceeds on similar lines.
Let the user specified maximum skin temperature be
max
skin
T
. The heat
transfer coefficient based on insulation surface is also provided by the user.
Heat transfer rate per unit exposed skin area is thus
( )
ambient skin
T T h Q
max 1
For a cylindrical geometry, heat transfer rate per unit area of the cylinder is
( )
ambient skin
Ins
T T
r
r
h Q

,
_

max
0
It may be noted that (
0
r
r
h
Ins

) is the value of heat transfer coefficient

based on cylinder surface. Based on
1
Q
, the calculation of insulation
thickness is iterative. However, if Q is known (i.e. if heat transfer coefficient
based on cylinder surface is specified), calculation is a one-pass procedure.
For process vessels, the ratio of insulated diameter to vessel diameter

,
_

0 0
r
r
or
d
d
Ins Ins
is approximated as unity to begin with. An estimate of Q is thus
available (=
1
Q
) for given value of h.
Q should be equal to the heat conducted per unit area into the
insulation at the cylinder-insulation interface. Or
Q
r
dr
dT
r k
r

0
0
2
2
0

But 1 0
0
c
dr
dT
r
r

Substituting earlier obtained expression for
1
c
,
Ins
skin vessel
r
r
T T
r
k
Q
0
0
ln

Considering the relation between Ins
r
and
( ) t r r r
Ins o
+
0 and a bit of
manipulation, one gets regulation thickness of insulation as
1
1
1
1
]
1

'

1 exp
0
max
0
Q
k
r
T T
r t
skin vessel
R
Now that an estimate of
R
t
and hence Ins
r
( R
t r +
0 ) is available, one
may like to correct the estimate of Q (
0
1
r
r
Q
Ins

) and repeat above

calculations. Few iterations converge on a value of
R
t
.
The value of insulation thickness has been designated as regulation
thickness as this is the minimum that is required to keep the skin
temperature at
max
skin
T
. This may come out to be a odd value. Recommended
thickness should be and would be more than this. The reason could be the
need to round off, the need to provide engineering tolerances or the need to
keep the insulation thickness a multiple of some least count. The last
reason is supported by the following calculations.
The insulation thickness is seen as an integer number of layers of a
specified least count or unitary insulation thickness. Let it be u
t
. The
number of layers (N) is then the regulation thickness rounded off to the next
multiple of u
t
.
N =
1 int +

'

u
reg
t
t
eger
Here, integer {} denotes the integer part of the rational number within
{}. The recommended insulation thickness is thus
u
t N t
t d d
Ins
2
0
+
;
2
Ins
Ins
d
r
The rate of heat transfer per unit area of the cylinder can then be
recalculated for the actual recommended thickness using the formula derived
earlier.
( )
Ins
Ins
ambient vessel
real
d
d
h k
d d d
T T
Q
0 0 0
1 ln
2
+
1
]
1

The skin temperature with the recommended thickness is reevaluated
as
amb
Ins
real
skin
T
d
d
h
Q
T +

0
This would obviously be less than the stipulated maximum skin
temperature.
Maximum Allowable Heat Loss Option
Often process requirement could put a restriction on the maximum
allowable heat egress/ingress from the vessel or pipe run. Using the
dimensions of the vessel/pipe, this can be converted to allowable heat loss
per unit surface of the vessel/pipe [
max
Q
]. Allowable heat loss per unit
surface of insulation (
max
1
Q ) is then related to this as
( )
max 0
max
1
Q
r
r
Q
Ins

Note that this cannot be calculated as insulation thickness and hence

Ins
r
is not known. However for process vessels, Ins
r r
0 can be approximated
as unity to get a starting guess of max
1
Q
(=
max
Q
). The regulation thickness of
the insulation is then estimated as follows.
amb skin
T
h
Q
T +
max
1
max
1
1
1
1
]
1

'

1 exp
max
1 0
max
0
Q
k
r
T T
r t
skin vessel
R
Estimate of
max
1
Q can now be refined using this insulation thickness
iteratively to arrive at a convergent value of
R
t
. This can be converted to
recommended insulation thickness as earlier.
Economic Thickness of Insulation
Insulation accounts for about 2% of a project cost. With safety and
process considerations satisfied, one would like to strike a balance between
capital cost of providing insulation and the cost of energy loss due to in
adequate insulation. A possible approach is suggested.
Let the thickness of insulation be t.
Weight of insulation per unit length of cylinder is
( )
Ins Ins Ins
r r W
2
0
2

Cylinder surface per unit length of cylinder is
0
2 r A
Ins

Weight of Insulation per unit insulation surface is
Ins
Ins Ins
Ins
Ins
Ins
d
d d
r
r r
A
W
W
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
4 2

Rate of Heat loss per unit cylinder surface is
( )
Ins
Ins
ambient vessel
d
d
h k
d d d
T T
Q
0 0 0
1 ln
2
+
1
]
1

If Ins
C
is the cost of insulation per unit weight, Insulation cost per unit
cylinder surface is
Ins Ins
C W C
1
If amortization factor for the insulation is m
A
, annualized capital cost
of insulation is
1
C A
m

. Similarly, the heat loss can be calculated per unit
cylinder surface per year from Q using appropriate multiplication factor
considering the unit of time used in k, h and hence Q. This multiplied by
energy cost per unit heat give the annual energy loss cost. Let this be
2
C .
Q C
2
[multiplying factor to get annual cost] energy
C
Total annual cost is
2 1
C C +
The cost function

is the objective function to be minimized using proper

t. A single variable optimization can be used get optimum t which
minimizes

.
Rating of an Insulation
How would an insulation with specific thickness function in terms of
heat loss, skin temperature, cost of insulation, cost of energy loss,
temperature profile within the insulation, average insulation temperature,
insulation heat content, etc. need to be calculated for a freshly designed or
existing insulation. These aspects of rating are discussed below.
It is presumed that the following vessel and insulation parameters,
temperatures and economic parameters are available:
energy Ins ambient vessel
C C h k T T t d , , , , , , ,
0
The insulated diameter is then calculated as
t d d
Ins
2
0
+
;
2
Ins Ins
d r
Heat loss per unit surface of cylinder:
( )
Ins
Ins
ambient vessel
d
d
h k
d d
t
d
T T
Q
0 0 0
1 ln
+
1
]
1

Insulation skin temperature

ambient skin
T
H
Q
T +
Heat loss per unit of vessel/pipe
0
d Q
Cost of heat loss per unit of time used in k, h
Energy
C d Q
0

Cost of heat loss per year

Multiplier C d Q
Energy

0

.
For example, if k, h use second as time unit multiplier is
3600

24

360
Weight of insulation per unit length of vessel/pipe
( )
Ins Ins
d d

2
0
2
4

.
Cost of Insulation per unit length of vessel/pipe
( )
Ins Ins Ins
C d d

2
0
2
4
Temperature profile in insulation:
0 0
ln
ln
) (
r
r
r r
T T
T r T
Ins
skin vessel
vessel

+
Ins
r r r
0
Average insulation temperature
( ) [ ]
( )
2
0
2
0
2
r r
dr T r T r
T T
Ins
r
r
ref
ref avg
Ins

Insulation Heat Content per unit length of vessel

( ) ( )
2
0
2
r r T T C
Ins ref avg p
Design of Insulation for other Geometries
Several other geometric are important from process vessel design
point of view. These get employed as closures or for change over from one
size to another or even as vessel bodies. Important shapes are considered
below.
Sphere and hemi-sphere
Spherical vessels have two important properties. From mechanical
strength point of view, sphere has the highest pressure bearing capacity
among all shapes for a given capacity and wall thickness. Also, sphere has
the least surface for a given volume and hence least heat egress/ingress for
given insulation thickness. Sphere also becomes important as a closure
shape for similar reasons as compared to other types of closures. Design and
rating calculations for insulation of spherical/hemi-spherical shape is
considered below.
Mathematical Model

0
r r
t


Ins
r

Consider a spherical shell of outer diameter 0
d
(radius
2
0 0
d r
) with
an insulation thickness of t. Let the vessel temperature be vessel
T
,
temperature of exposed insulation surface be skin
T
and the ambient
temperature be ambient
T
.
At steady state, rate of conductive heat transfer at any radius within
the insulation must be constant and equal to the rate of heat transfer from the
exposed insulation surface.
r
dr
dT
r k
1
]
1

2
4
= constant =
2
4
Ins
I
r Q
=
2
0
4 r Q
I
Q
is the rate of heat transfer per unit insulation surface and
Q
is the rate of
heat transfer per unit spherical shell surface.
dr
dT
r
2
= constant = C (say)
Therefore,
( )


r T
T
r
r
vessel
dT dr
r
C
0
2
( )
vessel
r
r
T r T
r
C
0
1
( )
vessel
T r T
r r
C
1
]
1

1 1
0
Considering that
skin
T T
at Ins
r r
,
one gets
( ) ( )
Ins Ins
vessel skin
r r r r
T T
C
0 0

Therefore,
( )
( ) ( )
1
]
1

r r r r r r
T T
T r T
Ins Ins
skin vessel
vessel
1 1
0 0 0
The heat transfer rate from the insulation skin can also be expressed in
terms of convective heat transfer rate. If h is the heat transfer coefficient
based on insulation skin surface,
( ) C k T T h r Q r
ambient skin Ins
I
Ins
4 4 4
2 2

=
( ) ( )
0 0
4
r r r r
T T
k
Ins Ins
vessel skin

Therefore,
h Q T T
I
ambient skin

k
r Q
r r
r r
T T
Ins
I
Ins
Ins
skin vessel
2
0
0

Adding and rearranging,
h k r r
r
T T
Q
Ins
Ins
ambient vessel I
1 1 1 1
0
2
+
1
]
1

=
( ) h r r k
r r
r
T T
Ins
Ins
Ins
ambient vessel
1 1
0
0
+

Thus the heat transfer rate can be calculated for given insulation
thickness. The above equation is thus an important rating expression.
The design equation is obtained as follows.
( ) ( )
2
0 0
Ins
I
Ins Ins
skin vessel
r Q
r r r r
T T
k

1
]
1

0
0
2
r r
r r
r
k
Q
T T
Ins
Ins
Ins
I
skin vessel
=
[ ]
0
0
r r
r
r
k
Q
Ins
Ins
I

= 1
]
1

1
0 0
0
r
r
r
r
r
k
Q
Ins Ins
I
=
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

0
2
0
0
r
r
r
r
r
k
Q
Ins Ins
I
Or,
0
0
2
0

,
_

,
_

k Q r
T T
r
r
r
r
I
skin vessel
o
Ins Ins
This is a quadratic in
( )
0
r r
Ins and the solution gives
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+ +

2
4 1 1
0
0
I
skin vessel
Ins
Q
k
r
T T
r r
Design with maximum skin temperature criteria
Unlike the case of cylinder, the design here is not iterative. The steps
involved are as follows.
From the user specified maximum allowable skin temperature (
max
skin
T
)
and heat transfer coefficient (h) based on unit skin surface area, heat loss per
unit insulation skin surface is calculated as follows.
( )
ambient skin
I
T T h Q
max
This is used in the above formula for Ins
r
to get insulated radius. The
minimum insulation thickness is then calculated as
0
r r t
Ins

Design with maximum allowable heat loss
User specifies the maximum allowable heat loss per unit surface area
of sphere (
max
Q ). The heat transfer coefficient is specified per unit area of
insulation surface. The two important specification at two different surfaces
necessitates iterative calculations, unlike in the previous case. The
following approach is suggested.
Guess a value of insulation thickness ( G
t
). Calculate Ins
r
as
G Ins
t r r +
0
Estimate heat transfer rate per unit surface of insulation as
2
2
0 max
max
Ins
I
r
r
Q Q
Estimate skin temperature.
ambient
I
skin
T
h
Q
t +
max
Estimate insulated radius ( Ins
r
) as
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

+ +

2
4 1 1
max
0
0
I
skin vessel
Ins
Q
k
r
T T
r r
Obtain the insulation thickness, t, from difference of Ins
r
and o
r
. If this
is not the same as guessed thickness within tolerance, repeat above
calculation with improved guess. Arithmatic average of the guessed and
calculated thickness is a good new guess. Also, initial guess could be zero.
This iterative scheme converges to the final estimate within reasonable
number of iterations.
Economic Thickness of Insulation
The design in this case attempts to find an insulation thickness which
minimizes total annual cost comprising annualized capital cost of insulation
and cost of energy lost through insulation. The approach is similar and
formulae leading to the expression of total annual cost as a function of
insulation thickness are given below
t d d
Ins
2
0
+
2
0
0
d
r
2
Ins Ins
d r
Weight if insulation
( )
Ins Ins Ins
r r W
3
0
3
3
4

Area of insulation skin
2
4
Ins Ins
r A
Weight of insulation per unit insulation surface:
Ins
Ins
Ins
Ins Ins Ins
r
r r
A W W
2
3
0
3
3


Rate of heat loss per unit insulation surface is
( ) h r r k
r r
r
T T
Q
Ins
Ins
Ins
ambient vessel I
1 1
0
0
+

Insulation cost per unit insulation surface:

Ins Ins
C W C
1
Annualized capital cost of insulation is
1
AnC .
Heat loss per unit insulation surface per year:
1 2
Q C
[multiplying factor to get annual cost] Energy
C
Total annualized cost:
2 1
C C +
Single variable optimization can be used to final optimal insulation thickness
which minimizes

.
Design of insulation for a hemisphere is identical to that of a sphere.
Rating of Insulation for Sphere
For a given insulation thickness around a sphere, performance rating
follows on the lines of that for a cylinder. The procedure is briefly
summarized here.
t d d
Ins
2
0
+
,
2
Ins Ins
d r
Heat loss per unit insulation surface:
( )
( ) h d d k
d d d
T T
Q
Ins
Ins Ins
ambient vessel I
1 1
2
0
0
+
1
]
1

Insulation skin temperature

ambient
I
skin
T
h
Q
T +
Rate of heat loss:
2
4
Ins
I
r Q
Cost of heat loss per unit time (unit of time as used in the definition of k, h):
Energy Ins
C r Q
2
4
Cost of heat loss per year
Multiplier C r Q
Ins Ins

2
4
.
Multiplier to be evaluated as in the case of cylinder.
Weight of insulation:

( )
Ins Ins
r r
3
0
3
3
4

Cost of Insulation:
( )
Ins Ins Ins
C r r
3
0
3
3
4

Temperature profile in insulation:
( ) ( )
skin vessel
Ins
vessel
T T
r r
r r
T r T

,
_

,
_

1 1
1 1
0
0

Ins
r r r
0
Average insulation temperature
( ) [ ]
( )
3
0
3
2
0
3
r r
dr T r T r
T T
Ins
r
r
ref
ref avg
Ins

Insulation heat content

( ) ( )
Ins Ins ref avg p
r r T T C
3
0
3
3
4

Rating for hemisphere is similar except that the rate of heat loss, cost
of energy loss, weight insulation, cost of insulation, insulation heat content
would be halved.