OTC 10991 Partially-drained loading of shallow foundations on sand

J.K. Mangal and G.T. Houlsby, University of Oxford

Copyright 1999, Offshore Technology Conference This paper was prepared for presentation at the 1999 Offshore Technology Conference held in Houston, Texas, 36 May 1999. This paper was selected for presentation by the OTC Program Committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the Offshore Technology Conference and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of the Offshore Technology Conference or its officers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper for commercial purposes without the written consent of the Offshore Technology Conference is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presented.

Abstract Wave loading on offshore structures that are founded on sand can result in a partially-drained response of the foundation soil. The characteristics of the rate of loading, the permeability of the soil, and the size of the foundation affect the degree of partial drainage. Partial drainage refers to situations where pore pressures develop in the soil, and the response of the soil is neither fully drained nor undrained. This paper is concerned with the effects of loading rate, and consequent drainage, on the behaviour of a flat circular footing that is founded on the surface of a saturated sand base. The results of physical tests performed in the laboratory on a model-size footing are reported. The footing was founded on oil-saturated fine sand and was subjected to partially-drained vertical as well as combined loading. The effect of the vertical displacement rate are reported. The response of the footing is analysed in the context of existing drained foundation models that are based on work hardening plasticity theory. The rate dependency of the vertical load:deformation behaviour is examined in detail and the effects of rate on combined load yield surfaces are briefly described. Introduction In the offshore industry, bearing capacity methods are commonly used to calculate the ultimate drained and undrained capacity of foundations under vertical, inclined, and eccentric loads (Hansen1 and Vesic2). Butterfield and Ticof3 suggested that the combined load problem be analysed in terms of load interaction diagrams and also postulated the cigar shaped V:M:H failure surface shown in Fig. 1. Recent research has successfully interpreted the drained and undrained behaviour of shallow foundations in terms of plasticity theory4,5,6,7. Foundation models based on plasticity theory are simple and powerful methods for analysing the

behaviour of shallow foundations. These models can incorporate vertical as well as horizontal and moment loads, and also link loads and displacements. Some of the components of a plasticity based foundation model are shown in Fig. 2. A hardening rule is used to represent the vertical load:deformation behaviour and the size of the yield surface. A description of the yield surface, which defines the boundary (in load space) between elastic and plastic behaviour, is required. The combined load:deformation behaviour within the yield surface can usually be modelled as elastic behaviour. The ratios of the various components of displacement are modelled by a plastic potential. The partially-drained response of sand, and hence of foundations on sand, is not well understood. Design procedures for estimating the vertical load:deformation behaviour, or even the bearing capacity, have not been established. The limited amount of experimental evidence in the literature indicates that the vertical capacity increases with load rate (for tests on dense sand). This is the case with both compressive and tensile loading. The partially-drained bearing capacity (at the maximum load rate tested) was approximately twice the drained capacity in the model footing tests reported by Vesic et al.8. The dimensionless bearing capacity factor for these tests is plotted against the penetration rate in Fig. 3[a]. The increase in the penetration rate had no effect in the tests on the dry sand samples. This indicates that the change in capacity was drainage related. The reduction in the drainage that occurred with the increase in the penetration rate also resulted in more ductile load:deformation behaviour, as shown in Fig. 3[b]. The data reported by Houlsby9 indicated that the tensile capacity of a model suction caisson footing increased with the pull rate. The load:deformation curves of tests pulled at different rates is shown in Fig. 4. The response in Fig. 4. becomes stiffer as the pull rate increases (the drainage length H and the coefficient of consolidation cv are constant). Apparatus A flat circular footing with a rough base was loaded by a displacement-controlled rig. The diameter of the footing was 150mm. The rig and all of the data logging processes were controlled from a PC. Miniature cone penetrometer tests were also performed. The sample preparation procedures for preparing the oil-saturated sand samples were novel and

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required special equipment. The test rig was designed by Martin 6 for model spudcan footing tests on clay. The control of the rig was fully automated and allowed independent control over vertical (w), horizontal (u), and rotational () displacements in a single vertical plane. Displacement control facilitates exploration of the complete V:M:H failure surface using swipe tests, which involve either horizontal or rotational displacement at a constant vertical displacement. Simultaneous measurement of the resulting load components (V, M and H) was achieved using a Cambridge type load cell10. The rig was adapted to cope with the increased stiffness and the displacement rates required for partially-drained footing tests on dense sand. This entailed replacement of some structural elements, a faster and more powerful vertical motion system, an altogether different and more sensitive displacement measurement system, and a new load cell of increased capacity. The detailed design of the rig and the modifications performed are given by Mangal11. The displacement of the footing was measured using an arrangement of three 5mm range LVDTs. The armature of each LVDT was connected directly to the footing and the other end was connected to a frame that was fixed to the sample container. This measurement system ensured that the displacement measurements were not affected by the flexibility of the loading rig. The measurements were resolved to about ten microns. A pore pressure transducer was connected at the centre of the footing. The measurement range of this transducer was 100kPa and the pressures were measured to an accuracy of about 0.1kPa. The design loads of the load cell were: V = 1800N ; H = 500N; and M = 25Nm (at V = 900N). The vertical and horizontal loads were measured to an accuracy of about 3N and the moment to 0.2Nm. The velocity ranges of stepper motors used to displace the footing were 0.001-5mm/s, 0.001-0.4mm/s, and 0.0010.2deg/s for vertical, horizontal, and rotational displacement. The response of the footing on the oil-saturated sand was drained at the slowest displacement rates. At the fastest displacement rates, the tests were logged at 100 scans per second. This was the maximum logging rate of the data acquisition system. Oil-saturated Baskarp Cyclone sand was used as the foundation soil. A viscous pore fluid was used to reduce the permeability of the samples so that partially-drained behaviour could be attained within the velocity range of the test rig. The sand was a fine-silty-sand with a mean grain size of 0.06 mm and the permeability of the oil-saturated sand was about 1.8 10-7m/s. The properties of Baskarp Cyclone sand deduced from element tests are given by Mangal11. The diameter of the sample containers was 450mm and the height of the samples was generally about 250mm. Three different specimens were produced. Two were saturated and one was dry. The two saturated specimens were recycled insitu to produce 19 different samples. Only one sample was produced with the dry specimen. A main-test was performed on each of the samples. Thus 20 main-tests were performed.

Each main-test included a variety of sub-tests. Such as unloadreload sub-tests, consolidation sub-tests, and vertical and combined load partially-drained sub-tests. The oil-saturated samples were fluidised after each test. A large stirring apparatus was developed for this purpose. The stirrer consisted of a rotating paddle that was gradually lowered through the full depth of the samples. The samples were densified by applying downward hydraulic gradient and vibration. The application of the gradient and the vibration were alternated, and the densification took about five days. The densification process was automated by using an electrical switching device to control the pneumatic power for the gradient and vibration. It was possible to achieve relative densities above 90% using this system. The relative density and the friction angle of the samples were estimated from miniature cone penetration tests. Bearing capacity estimates were deduced using the bearing capacity factors from Bolton and Lau12. The bearing capacity (Vm) estimates are shown in Fig. 5. The relative density of the samples ranged from 54% to 92%, and the bearing capacity estimates from 2kN to 10kN. The bearing capacity of the dry sample was greater than that of a saturated sample with at a similar relative density because of the hydrostatic pressure and the degrading effect of the silicone oil. Triaxial tests indicated that the silicone oil reduced the peak friction angle of the sand by about 1.5 to 2. Vertical Loading Partially-drained vertical sub-tests were performed from 500N and 1000N. Thus two partially-drained sub-tests were performed in each main-test. The footing was loaded at the drained displacement rate (dw/dt = 0.001mm/s) up to 500N, a partially-drained test was performed, and then the footing was again loaded at the drained rate to 1000N. The partiallydrained tests were conducted at displacement rates between 0.01mms/ and 5mm/s. The displacement rate was varied between each set of two sub-tests that were performed in each main-test. The rate was varied to investigate the effect of varying degrees of partial drainage. The footing was only displaced about 0.5mm in each partially-drained sub-test. This was done to limit the maximum load attained in each sub-test, so subsequent tests would not be performed from overconsolidated states. General Shape of Partially-drained Load:Deformation Curves. The shape of the partially-drained load:deformation curves was consistent. A very stiff primary section and a less stiff secondary section was observed. The shape of the curve and the parameters used to model the partially-drained behaviour are shown in Fig. 6. The drained virgin-penetration penetration stiffness was represented by K. This stiffness was measured during the drained loading that preceded the partially-drained tests. The stiffness of the primary section was denoted Kpd-p and that of the secondary section Kpd-s. The load change associated with the primary section was Vpd-p. The displacement associated with the primary section varied

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PARTIALLY-DRAINED LOADING OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ON SAND

between 0.05mm and 0.1mm. Primary Stiffness. The values of the primary stiffness did not indicate a clear trend of increasing stiffness with rate. The values ranged between 2kN/mm and 10kN/mm as shown in Fig. 7. The primary stiffness values of the tests performed from V = 500N are shown in Fig. 7[a], and those from the tests performed from V = 1000N are shown in Fig. 7[b]. The drained unload and unload-reload stiffness values are also shown in Fig. 7[b]. Drained unload-reload tests were performed from V = 1000N in some of the main-tests in which partially-drained sub-tests were not performed. The drained unload stiffness (for a strain of about 0.05%) was about 6kN/mm and the drained unload-reload stiffness (for a strain of about 0.2%) was about 6kN/mm. Thus the primary stiffness of the partially-drained moves were similar to the drained elastic stiffness. Note that the drained virgin-penetration stiffness at V = 450N varied between 100N/mm and 500N/mm, and at V = 950N it varied between 100N/mm and 900N/mm. It was probable that the creep that usually occurred during the holding of the vertical load had some influence on the primary stiffness (the vertical load was held for about three minutes before the partially-drained tests were performed). Mitchell13 noted that creep loading increased the stiffness of subsequent virgin-penetration loading. The high initial values of stiffness were not due to the effects of overconsolidation. The partially-drained tests were performed from the virginpenetration line in the majority of cases. It should be noted that a primary stiffness was evident in the preliminary tests, which were performed to verify an applicable footing size and pore pressure measurement system. In some of the preliminary tests, an altogether different loading apparatus was used. This ruled out the possibility that the loading apparatus was the cause of the observed primary stiffness. The primary stiffness was most probably a rate dependent phenomenon due to the permeability of the soil, as there was no evidence in the literature of such large initial stiffness values in the rapid loading of dry sand. In the consolidation tests that were performed, similarly large initial values of stiffness were measured. The value of the initial stiffness was also found to be proportional to the equivalent drained stiffness. That is, it was higher in the unloading (elastic) consolidation tests than in the loading (plastic) consolidation tests. It was probable that there was an upper limit to the partially-drained stiffness that was equivalent to the undrained stiffness (the undrained stiffness being calculated from the elastic drained stiffness measured in an unloading test). In Fig. 8, the primary stiffness values from the partially-drained tests are compared with the values from the consolidation tests. The stiffness measured in the partially-drained tests was consistent with the statement above relating to the undrained stiffness. It was possible, however, that the upper limit to the stiffness in the partially-drained loading tests was approximately half that of the possible undrained limit shown in Fig. 8 (unloading and reloading tests are not discussed here). The fastest of the partially-drained tests should have been almost undrained,

considering the time scale and the probable coefficient of consolidation. That is, about 0.02s and about 1.0 x 10-3m2/s respectively. Load Change Associated with Primary Section. The load change associated with the primary sections of the partiallydrained tests was dependent on the penetration rate. The load change is plotted against the penetration rate in Fig. 9. The data is plotted with a normal x-axis in Fig. 9[a] and with a logarithmic x-axis in Fig. 9[b]. The different types of axis illustrate the trend of the data at high penetration rates and at low penetration rates. Expressions that were derived from rate process theory13 matched the trend of the data well. The tests at both Vo = 500N and Vo = 1000N can be fitted by V pd - p Vo & ) + 0.1 ............................... (1) = 0.046 sinh -1 (5w

& is in mm/s. where w The trend of the data (shown in Fig. 9) at low displacement rates indicated the likelihood of an initial stiff response (like that of a primary section in the partially-drained load:deformation curve) even at the drained rate of 0.001mm/s. In the absence of stiffness enhancing rate effects, the value of Vpd-p at the drained rate should have been approximately 10N and 20N for the tests conducted at V = 500N and V = 1000N respectively. These values were based on the average magnitude of displacement over which the values of Vpd-p were measured, and the representative values of drained stiffness. The value of Vpd-p at the creep rate should have been equal to zero. A representative creep rate was about 10-4mm/s, as determined from the holding of the vertical load. Since Eq. 1 gives a finite value of Vpd-p at this rate, it suggests that this equation does not model the behaviour at very low rates of displacement. Secondary Stiffness. A secondary section, as defined in Fig. 6, was observed in all of the partially-drained vertical tests. In some of the tests on the looser samples with low relative density values, there was considerable reduction in the load immediately after the primary section. That is, these tests showed evidence of partial liquefaction. After the reduction in load, the load:deformation behaviour tended to a straight line indicating a constant stiffness. In such cases, the secondary stiffness was taken as the gradient of the latter, and constant, part of the partially-drained load:deformation curves. The secondary stiffness of the partially-drained tests is plotted against the drained virgin-penetration stiffness as shown in Fig. 10. The values of Kpd-s were similar to the equivalent drained stiffness, even at the fastest displacement rates. This indicated that after the initial highly rate dependent section, the load:deformation behaviour of the partiallydrained penetrating footing was rate insensitive. That is, after a strain of about 0.03%, in the tests in which work-softening was not evident, the load:deformation behaviour of the footing was not affected by the rate of displacement. Note that the above refers to the total load and not the effective load.

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Evidence of Liquefaction. A number of the partially-drained tests on samples with low values of virgin-penetration stiffness exhibited evidence of partial liquefaction. All of these tests liquefied to some degree but none showed evidence of full liquefaction. That is, the estimated effective load did not reduce to zero. It should be noted that in estimating the effective load, a parabolic shaped pore pressure distribution was assumed across the base of the footing. This assumption is thought to be particularly applicable during the later stages of the tests14. All the tests that partially liquefied are shown in Fig. 11. The estimated relative density values of these samples were not particularly low, but the virgin-penetration stiffness values were. The virgin-penetration stiffness was measured between loads of 400N and 500N, or between 900N and 1000N, depending on the vertical load from which the partiallydrained tests were to be conducted. In the slowest test shown in Fig. 11, the test in the first row of plots, the partial liquefaction is not sustained and the effective load increases. The interaction between the rate of penetration and the rate of pore pressure dissipation in the fastest test, however, leads to progressive liquefaction and a continual reduction in the effective load. It should be noted that all of these tests were performed under displacement control. Under load control, the observed liquefaction would have been much more pronounced. The partial liquefaction most probably started in the very early stage of loading and at the edge of the footing. At this stage, the pore pressure distribution could have been similar to the undrained shape, with high pressures at the edge of the footing. These high pore pressures would have resulted in substantial hydraulic gradients and the flow of pore fluid away from the edge. This flow could have caused local liquefaction. Multi-rate Partially-drained Tests. The results of partiallydrained tests already described were corroborated with tests in which the penetration rate was alternated between slow and fast rates. These are shown in Fig. 12 and will be referred to as multi-rate tests. The test from an initial vertical load of 500N is shown in the plot of the left and the test from 1000N is shown on the right. The pore pressure load U, calculated for a parabolic distribution, is also included. The extrapolated drained penetration line (or virgin-penetration line), and the partially-drained penetration lines along which the slow and fast moves tended, are shown. The symbols represent the data points along the loading sections of the fast moves. The motor stalled during the second fast move of the test from 500N. Lines indicating the initial stiff response of the partiallydrained moves are shown. The primary stiffness Kpd-p varied between 2kN/mm and 10kN/mm in all of the moves, but lines with a gradient of 10kN/mm are shown in Fig. 12. These values are similar to the values measured in the normal partially-drained tests, which are shown in Fig. 7. The Vpd-p values in the test from 500N shown in Fig. 12[a] are 60N and 125N. These values are very similar to those predicted by Eq. 1. The values during the second and

third slow moves were slightly less, but the values during both of the fast moves are consistent. The Vpd-p values in the test from 1000N shown in Fig. 12[b] are 90N and 210N. Again these values are very similar to those predicted. The findings of the multi-rate tests substantiate and extend the results of the constant-rate partially-drained tests. The multi-rate tests indicate that the rate dependent penetration lines deduced from the constant-rate tests might be unique, in so much as they are not affected by the prior w:V state. That is, the Vpd-p values are not influenced by prior moves at different rates. The pore pressure at the end of each slow move increased as the tests progressed. This indicates that there might have been some degradation in the effective load since the total load at the end of each test increased in parallel with the drained penetration line. Combined Load The partially-drained combined load tests that were performed were swipe tests. That is, the footing was displaced horizontally or rotated whilst the vertical displacement was fixed. This type of test has been shown to closely track the yield surface4,6. Swipe tests, tracking the V:H or the V:M yield surface, were performed at different rates. The yield surfaces expanded as the horizontal or rotational displacement rate increased. The initial section of the partially-drained yield surfaces could be modelled by a parabolic surface (that is, a similar shape to the drained surfaces). At the maximum rates (that is, du/dt = 0.4mm/s and d/dt = 0.2deg/s), the initial sections of the yield surfaces expanded by about 12%. The multi-rate combined load swipes shown in Fig 13 illustrate the partially-drained expansion well. The slow sections of the swipes were displaced at the drained rates of 0.001mm/s and 0.001deg/s, and the fast sections at 0.1mm/s and 0.1deg/s. The swipes were not corrected for the slight vertical penetration that occurred during the tests, thus the tests represent a slightly expanding surface and not a single surface. It was not possible to quantify the rate dependent combined load behaviour, more data would be required for this. These tests indicate, however, that there might be partially-drained yield surfaces that are dependent on the rate. Conclusions The typical dimensions of shallow offshore foundations on sand are such that, when loaded by environmental forces, the loading will be partially-drained. The results of this investigation have shown that partially-drained loading affects the response of a model footing. The vertical load:deformation response of the model footing was shown to rate dependent. The stiffness increased with rate. It was possible to quantify the observed response using an expression derived from rate process theory. The combined load yield surfaces were also shown to be rate dependent. These expanded with rate but the response was not quantified.

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PARTIALLY-DRAINED LOADING OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ON SAND

Acknowledgements The first author was supported by Research Studentship from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council. References
1. Brinch Hansen, J.: "A revised and extended formula for bearing capacity", Bulletin no. 28, Danish Geotechnical Institute, Copenhagen (1970). 2. Vesic, A. S.: "Bearing capacity of shallow foundations", Foundation engineering handbook, Winterkorn and Fang (eds.), Van Nostrand, New York (1975), 45. 3. Butterfield, R. and Ticof, J.:"Design parameters for granular soils (discussion contribution)", Proc., 7th Int. Conf. on Soil Mech. and Foundation Eng., Brigthon (1979), 4. 4. Tan, F. S. C.: "Centrifuge and theoretical modelling of conical footings on sand", Ph.D thesis, University of Cambridge (1990). 5. Nova, R. and Montrasio, L.: "Settlements of shallow foundations on sand", Gotechnique (1991) 41(2), 243. 6. Martin, C. M.: "Physical and numerical modelling of offshore foundations under combined loads", D.Phil. thesis, University of Oxford (1994). 7. Gottardi, G., Houlsby, G. T., and Butterfield, R.: "The plastic response of circular footings on sand under general planar loading", Report no. OUEL 2143/97, Oxford University

Engineering Laboratory (1997). 8. Vesic, A. S., Banks, D. C., and Woodard, J. M.: "An experimental study of dynamic bearing capacity of footings on sand", Proc., 6th Int Conf. on Soil Mech. and Foundation Eng., Montreal (1965), 2, 209. 9. Houlsby, G. T.: "Geotechnical model testing - Sleipner Vest project", Main report 1-3 (draft), Civil Engineering Group, University of Oxford (1995). 10. Bransby, P. L.: "Cambridge contact stress transducers", Report no. CUED/C-SOILS/LN2, Cambridge University Engineering Deparment (1973). 11. Mangal, J. K.: "Partially-drained loading of shallow foundations on sand ", D.Phil. thesis (to be submitted), University of Oxford (1999) 12. Bolton, M. D. and Lau, C. K.: "Vertical bearing capacity factors for circular and strip footings on Mohr-Coulomb soil", Canadian Geotechnical Journal (1993) 30(6), 1024. 13. Mitchell, J. K.: Fundamentals of soil behaviour, John Wiley and Sons, New York (1976). 14. Yue, Z.Q., Selvadurai, A.P.S. and Law, K.T. Excess Pore Pressures in a Poroelastic Seabed Saturated with a Compressible Fluid, Canad. Geotech. Jour. (1994), 31, 898-1003

V
Vo
ha rd en ing

yield surface

elastic behaviour within yield surface

ru le

w
Fig. 1Cigar shaped V:M :H failure surface (after Butterfield and Ticof, 1979) Fig. 2Some components of a plasticity based foundation model

2000 1600 1200

40

Ex p erimen ta l Ng : V BN g sg =1 g 2
A

[a]
30

dry sand saturated sand

[b]

800 400

g R =76to82% D R=50.8m m
3p R
3

R D = 71%

w ult /2 R (%)

N g=

5V

20

10

0 0.0001 0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

0 0.0001 0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

dw /dt (mm/s)

dw /dt (mm/s)

Fig. 3Partially-drained model footing tests: [a] effect of rate on dimensionless bearing capacity; and [b] effect of rate on ultimate settlement (data from Vesic et. al., 1965)

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strain, dw /2R (%)

-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 15000

vH /c v = -0.0008

V m (N)

v = pull rate; H = drainage length; c v = coeff. of consolidation

normalised contact stress, / q / o

10000

dry sample

5000 saturated samples 0 50 60 70 80 90 100

Note: Error bars indicate ranges for +/- 1 deg variation in the peak friction angle.

-0.0077 -0.0154 y -axis labels not shown

R D (%)
Fig. 5Bearing capacity estimates for the different sand samples

Fig. 4Effect of pull rate on the tensile capacity of a model suction caisson foundation (data from Houlsby, 1995)
1100

partially-drained penetration drained penetration 900 K pd-s (secondary stiffness)

V (N)

700

V pd-p (primary load change)

K pd-p (primary stiffness)

500

K/ (drained virgin-penetration stiffness; measured betw een 400-500 N or 900-1000 N)

300 0.75

1.25

1.5

1.75

2.25

w (mm)
Fig. 6Load:deformation shape used to model partially-drained tests

K pd-p or K / u l or K / u l r l

16000 V 12000 o = 500 N

16000

0.01mm/s V
o

[a]
12000 8000

= 1000 N

[b]

0.1mm/s 1mm/s

(N/mm)

8000 4000 0 0
/

5mm/s 4000 0 500 1000 0 500 1000 drained unload-reload stiffness drained unload stiffness

K (N/mm)

K / (N/mm)

Fig. 7The primary stiffness of the partially-drained tests at different penetration rates: [a] tests from V = 500 N; and [b] tests from V = 1000 N (compared to drained elastic stiffness values)

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20000 16000 loading tests

drained stiffness consolidation tests re-loading tests partially-drained tests possible und. limit (1.8 x drained elastic stiffness)
Note:

K pd-p (N/mm)

12000 8000 4000 0 0

unloading tests

Displacement rates: - 0.02 mm/s in consolidation tests - 0.01-5.0 mm/s in partially-drained tests 12000

4000
/

8000

K (N/mm)

Fig. 8Comparison of the partially-drained stiffness from consolidation tests and from partially-drained vertical tests
400 400

[a]
300 Eq. 1 300

[b]

Eq. 1

V p d - p (N)

200

Eq. 1

200

Eq. 1

100

100

0 -2 0 2 4 6 8

0 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100

d w /d t ( m m )
Vo = 500 N Vo = 1000 N

d w /d t ( m m )

Fig. 9The load change associated with the primary section of the partially-drained tests: [a] normal x-axis; and [b] logarithmic x-axis
1000
[ a ]

1000
[ b ]

800

V o

= 500 N

800 600

V o

= 1000 N

K pd-s (N/mm)

600 400

400 200 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000

200 0

K / (N/mm)
0.01 mm/s 0.1 mm/s 1.0 mm/s

K / (N/mm)
5.0 mm/s y=x

Fig. 10The secondary stiffness of the partially-drained tests: [a] tests from V = 500 N; and [b] tests from V = 1000 N

V or V / (N) or V / (N)
4 6 8 0 0 0 2 0

200
0 0 0 0 0

400

600

800

0
K/ K/ R D

= 81 %
0 . 5

= 180 N/mm

= 112 N/mm;
V

0.5
d w

(mm)
R
1

= 5 0 0 N

1 = 67 %

1.5
. 5

-300 U (N)

-100

100

300

-300

-100 U (N) V or V / (N)

100

300

V or V / (N) 700 900 1100 1300 700 900 1100 1300

0 poreprobable pressure effective total virgin-penetration load load load line = 136 N/mm; 0.5
d w

0
K/ K/

J.K. MANGAL AND G.T. HOULSBY

= 223 N/mm;
V

0.5

(mm)
R D R D

= 1 0 0 0 N

= 67 %

= 77 %

1.5 -300 -100 U (N) d w /d t = 1.0 m m /s d w /d t = 0.1 m m /s 100 300

1.5 -300 -100 U (N) d w /d t = 0.01 m m /s 100 300

Fig. 11Load:deformation behaviour of the partially-drained vertical tests that exhibited evidence of liquefaction

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600

1500
V

600 = 1000 N
210 N

[a]
9 0 0

= 500 N 500 1400

[b]

500

125 N

400

1300

400

(N)

300

V (N)

V
6 0 0

U (N)

100

1000

100

0
. 0 5 0 . 0 5 0 . 1 5 0 . 2 5 0 . 3 5 0 . 4 5 d w

- 0

900 -0.05 0.05

0.15
d w

0.25

0.35

0 0.45

(mm)

(mm)

V or U partially-drained penetration lines

drained penetration line primary sections

Fig. 12Partially-drained vertical tests with alternating slow and fast penetration rates: [a] tests from V = 500 N; and [b] tests from V = 1000 N

0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0

[a]

0.15

V o

= 1700

M /2 RV o

0.1

/V o

0.05

0 0.2 0.4
V

0.6

0.8

1.2

[b ]

= 2100

0.2

0.4
V

0.6

0.8

U (N)
1.2

60 N

200

1100

90 N

1200

300

200

/V o
partially-drained parabola

/V o

drained parabola

multi-rate sw ipe

Fig. 13Partially-drained combined load tests with alternating slow and fast displacement rates: [a] horizontal swipe test; and [b] moment swipe test