BASIC GEOLOGY

2
Explain the main types of rocks
Identify rocks by their lithology
Explain the two main physical properties of reservoir
rocks
Describe four geological components of a prospect
Illustrate different types of petroleum reservoirs
Describe structural features that affect drilling
List methods used for evaluation during drilling
Learning Objectives
3
Geology is the science that deals with the history
and structure of the earth and its life forms,
especially as recorded in the rock record

During drilling rock characteristics and associated
drilling conditions can change many times

An understanding of the anticipated geology is
essential for properly designing the well and then
drilling it efficiently and safely.
Definition
4 Geologic Time Scale
ERA PERIOD EPOCH SUCCESSION OF LIFE
CENOZOIC
Quaternary
0 1 Million
Years
Recent
Pleistocene
Tertiary
65 Million Years
Pliocene
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene
MESOZOIC
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
PALEOZOIC
Permian
Pennsylvanian
Mississippian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
PRECAMBRIAN
5
Note the . In it is a nannofossil on the surface of this foraminifera
Microfossils found or extracted from drill
cuttings are the primary tool used by the oil
industry for age dating geologic strata.
Microfossils
6

IGNEOUS: Rocks formed by solidification of hot mobile
material termed magma.
Intrusive (solidifies underground)
Extrusive (volcanic eruption)
METAMORPHIC: Rocks formed by the transformation, in
the solid state, of pre-existing igneous or sedimentary
rocks as a result of high temperature and pressure.
SEDIMENTARY: Rocks formed from accumulations of
sediment, which may consist of rock fragments of
various sizes, the remains of animal and plants, the
product of chemical action or evaporation , or a
combination of these.
Types of Rocks
7 Distinction of Rocks for Petroleum
Igneous
Metamorphic
Non-
Reservoir
Sedimentary
Reservoir
8
Some Rock Samples
Reservoir
Reservoir
Reservoir
Reservoir
9
Description of Rock Cuttings
Shale, Clay, Claystone Argillaceous
Sandstone, Siltstone Arenaceous
Limestone, Dolomite Carbonates
Anhydrite, Salt Evaporites
Pyrite, Mica, Chert, Coal Other
10
Lithology
Shale
Sandstone
Limestone
Calcareous shale
Anhydrite
Argillaceous Limestone
Quartz
Conglomerate
Dolomite
Clay
Lignite
The Character of Rock Formations
11
Physical Properties of Reservoir Rocks
It is the percent volume
of pore space
Porosity
()
It is a measure of a
fluids ability to flow
through a porous media
Permeability
(k)
12
Physical Properties
Porosity ():
(

volume bulk
volume grain - volume bulk
100 = Porosity Percent
(

volume bulk
volume pore
100 = Porosity Percent
13
ABSOLUTE POROSITY: The percent of total voids in the
rock compared to the total rock volume

EFFECTIVE POROSITY: The percent of interconnected
void spaces in the rock compared to the total rock
volume
Physical Properties
14
Oil Reserves in Place
Oil In Place (Barrels) = 7,758 x V
o
x (1-S
w
)

Where,
V
o
= Volume of oil bearing rock in acre-feet
= Effective porosity, fraction
S
w
= Water saturation, fraction
15
Permeability (k):
It is a measure of a fluids ability to flow through
a porous media
Where,
Q = flow rate, cc/sec
A = cross-sectional area of rock, cm
2

k = permeability, Darcy
= viscosity of the fluid, cp
AP = differential pressure, atm
L = length over which AP applies, cm
h = thickness of medium, cm
re = external radius
rw = well radius
L
P

k
A = Q
rw
re
Ln
P

hk
2 = Q
Linear horizontal flow Radial horizontal flow
Physical Properties
16
Physical Properties
Bulk Density (
b
):
It is the weight per unit volume of rock
In sedimentary rocks it is less than the density of the
matrix material due to rock porosity
Under normal compaction, the bulk density increases
with depth
Unit of measurement is gm/cc

Example:
Take rock with a specific gravity of 2.7 and a porosity of
10%. The pores are filled with salt water having a
specific gravity of 1.05. The bulk density of the shale
would then be (.9) (2.7) + (.1) (1.05) = 2.53
17
Prospect Components
1
Source Rock
2
Reservoir
3
Seal
4
Trap
18

SOURCE ROCK: Organic deposit that, when
heated, release oil and/or gas. These deposits
are usually formed in marine and lacustrine
environments. Most common rock type is shale.
RESERVOIR: Container that holds sufficient
volumes of oil and/or gas. Most common rock
types include sandstone, limestone, and
dolomite.
Prospect Components
19
SEAL: Barrier that inhibits movement
of oil and/or gas. Common rock types
that act as seals are evaporites and
shales.

TRAP: Refers to the three dimensional
geometric configuration of the reservoir
and associated seal.
Prospect Components
20
Petroleum System Elements
Petroleum System Elements
Anticlinal Trap
Anticlinal Trap
(Impermeable)
Potential
Migration Route
Faults & Fractures
Unconformities
Salt Faces and Welds
Porous and Permeable Beds
Prospect Components
21
Flow of gas and oil from the source rock to the trap. Expulsion of oil and gas from the source
rock occurs because of volume increase during generation that fractures the shale.

Migration is usually upward through subsurface fractures due to buoyancy
(gas and oil are lighter than water).

Migration & Accumulation
22
Types of Petroleum Reservoirs
Anticline
Fault Trap
Stratigraphic Trap
Salt Dome
23
Oil
Anticlinal Trap
Gas
Reservoir
rock
Oil
Seal
Water
Fault trap requires:
Dipping Beds
Juxtaposition of impermeable
beds and/or
Smear/gouge seal as beds
move past each other
24
Fault Trap
25
A
B
C
A
B
C
Hanging wall
Foot wall
Normal Fault
Hanging wall moves down
relative to Footwall
Section will be missing faulted
out with normal faults
A
B
C
A
B
C
Hanging wall Foot wall
Reverse Fault
Hanging wall moves up
relative to Footwall
Section will be repeated with
reverse faults
Types of Faults
26 Stratigraphic Traps
27
Dome - An anticlinal structure, elliptical or
circular in outline. Often formed by intrusion
of igneous or diapiric sedimentary rock from
below.
Dome
28
Salt Dome
Cap Rock?
Salt Trap
29

The Science that deals with the composition and
physical phenomena of the earth and its liquid
and gaseous environments
Most commonly: Earth Magnetism, Gravity, and
Seismic Vibrations
Geophysics
30
Acquiring Seismic Data - Land
Vibrator Truck
(Energy Source)
Recording Truck
Geophone
(Receivers)
Returning Returning
Sound Waves Sound Waves
Vibrator Truck
(Energy Source)
Recording Truck
Geophone
(Receivers)
American Petroleum Institute, 1986
Returning Returning
Sound Waves Sound Waves
31
Acquiring Seismic Data - Marine
32
A Seismic Section
33
Gravity, seismic, and petrophysical log data are combined
3-D Earth Model
34
DIP
The angle at which a stratum or any planar
feature is inclined from the horizontal
The dip is at right angles to the strike

Structural Features
35 Structural Features
Structural features that affect drilling
performance:
Dip angle
Strike angle
Faults
Fractures
Vugs
Intercalation and lamination
Uplifted
Tectonic stresses and their direction
36
STRIKE
The course or bearing of the outcrop of an
inclined bed or structure on a level
surface; the direction or bearing of a
horizontal line in the plane of an inclined
stratum, joint, fault, cleavage plane, or
other structural plane
It is perpendicular to the direction of the
dip
Structural Features
37
Strike - parallel to the long axis of a structure or parallel to the direction or
trend taken by a structural element. Perpendicular to dip direction.

Dip - the maximum angle of a surface or structural element from horizontal.
Dip direction is perpendicular to strike.
Structural Features
38
Description and analysis of cuttings
Mud weight - in & out
Gas detection and measurement
Detection of hydrocarbon shows
Logging while drilling
Rate of penetration
Torque and drag
Directional measurements
Temperature of drilling fluid
Chemical analysis of drilling fluid
Coring
Evaluation During Drilling
39 Depth Reference
7025
6525
-5000
Measured Depth (MD)
True Vertical Depth (TVD)
Subsea True Vertical Depth (SSTVD)
5075
5075
-5000
3000
Measured Depth (MD)
True Vertical Depth (TVD)
Subsea True Vertical Depth (SSTVD)
Below Mud Line (BML)
SEA
LEVEL
+1000
0
-1000
-2000
-3000
-4000
-5000
KB/RT - 25
KB/RT - 75