These are notes for Chapter 15 of Alan Brinkley's American History a Survey. They are a reformatted, more universal version of the same notes that I found on Scribd.
These are notes for Chapter 15 of Alan Brinkley's American History a Survey. They are a reformatted, more universal version of the same notes that I found on Scribd.
Copyright:
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Available Formats
Download as DOC, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
These are notes for Chapter 15 of Alan Brinkley's American History a Survey. They are a reformatted, more universal version of the same notes that I found on Scribd.
Copyright:
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Available Formats
Download as DOC, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
a. The Aftermath of the War and Emancipation i. Southern towns and fields ruined, many whites stripped of slaves and capital, currency worthless, little property. Thousands of soldiers (>20% of adult white male pop) had died, people wanted to preserve what was left ii. Many emancipated slaves wandered looking for family, work. Almost none owned land or possessions b. Competing Notions of Freedom i. Freedom to blacks meant end to slavery, injustice, humiliation. Rights and protections of free men also desired ii. AAs differed over how to achieve freedom: some wanted economic redistribution including land, others wanted legal equality and opportunity. All wanted independence from white control iii. Whites wanted life w/o interference of North or federal government. Thirteenth Amendment (Dec 1865) had abolished slavery, but many planters wanted blacks to be tied to plantations iv. March 1865 Congress created Freedmen’s Bureau to distribute food, create schools, & help poor whites. Only a temporary solution, only operated for 1 yr c. Issues of Reconstruction i. Political issue when S states rejoined Union b/c Democrats would be reunited, threatened Repub nationalistic legislation for railroads, tariffs, bank and currency. Many in N wished to see S punished for suffering rebellion caused ii. Republicans split between Conservatives and Radicals- Con wanted abolition but few other conditions for readmission, Radicals (led by Rep Thaddeus Stevens of PA + Sen Charles Sumner of MA) wanted Confederate leaders punished, black legal rights protected, property confiscation. Moderates in between d. Plans for Reconstruction i. Lincoln proposed 1863 lenient Reconstruction plan- favored recruiting former Whigs to Republicans, amnesty to white Southerners other than high Confederate officials. When 10% of people took loyalty oath state government could be established. Questions of future of freedmen deferred for sake of rapid reunification ii. The occupied Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee rejoined under plan in 1864 iii. Radicals unhappy with mild plan. Wade-Davis Bill 1864 proposed governor for each state, when majority of people took allegiance oath constitutional convention could be held w/ slavery abolished, former Confederate leaders couldn’t vote. After Congress would readmit to Union. Lincoln pocket vetoed e. The Death of Lincoln i. April 14, 1865 Lincoln assassinated by John Wilkes Booth ii. Hysteria in N w/ accusations of conspiracy. Militant republicans exploited suspicions for months, ensured a mild plan would not come soon f. Johnson and “Restoration” i. Johnson became leader of Moderate and Conservative factions, enacted his “Restoration” plan while Congress in recess during summer 1865 ii. Plan offered amnesty to southerners taking allegiance oath, Confederate officials + wealthy planters needed special presidential pardon. Like Wade-Davis Bill had provisional governors, constitutional convention had to revoke ordinance of secession, abolish slavery, ratify 13th Amendment. State governments, then readmission iii. By end of 1865 all seceded states has new governments, waiting for Congress to recognize. Radicals refused to recognize Johnson governments b/c public sentiment more hostile- (e.g. Georgia’s choice of Confederate Alexander Stephens as Sen) 2. Radical Reconstruction a. The Black Codes i. 1865 + 1866 S state legislatures passed laws known as Black Codes- gave whites power over former slaves, prevent farm ownership or certain jobs ii. Congress reacted by widening powers of Freemen’s Bureau to nullify agreements forced on blacks. 1866 passed first Civil Rights Act- made blacks US citizens, gave fed government power to intervene to protect rights of citizens iii. Johnson vetoed both bills, but both were overridden b. The Fourteenth Amendment i. 14th Amendment defined citizenship- anybody born in US or naturalized automatically a citizen + guaranteed all rights of Const. No other citizenship requirements allowed, penalties for restricting male suffrage. Former Confederate members couldn’t hold state or fed office unless pardoned by Congress ii. Radicals offered to readmit those who ratified amendment, only TN did so iii. S race riots helped lead to overwhelming Repub majority (mostly Radicals) in 1866 Congressional elections, could now act over President’s objections c. The Congressional Plan i. Radicals passed 3 Reconstruction plans in 1867, established coherent plan ii. TN readmitted, but other state governments rejected. Cong formed five military districts w/ commanders who registered voters (blacks + white males uninvolved in rebellion) for const convention that must include black suffrage iii. After const ratified needed Congressional approval, state legislature had to ratify 14thAmendment. By 1868 10 former Confederate states fulfilled these conditions (14th Amendment now part of Const) and readmitted to Union iv. Congress also passed 1867 the Tenure of Office Act (forbade pres to remove civil officials w/o Senate consent) and the Command of the Army Act (no military orders except thru commanding general of army or w/ Sen approval) v. Supreme Court case Ex parte Milligan had declared military tribunals where civil courts existed unconstitutional , Radicals feared same ruling would apply to military districts so proposed bills threatening court—court didn’t hear Reconstruction cases for 2 years d. The Impeachment of President Johnson i. Pres Johnson obstacle to Radical legislation, yet tasked with administering Reconstruction programs. 1868 Johnson impeached for violation of Tenure of Office Act for dismissing Sec of War Stanton- Sen acquitted by 1 vote 3. The South in Reconstruction a. The Reconstruction Governments i. In ten states recognized under congressional plans up to ¼ of whites excluded from voting and office. These restrictions later lifted, but Republicans kept control w/ support of many southern whites called “scalawags” (most former Whigs, wealthy planters, businessman), felt Repub better for their economic interests ii. “Carpetbaggers” were northerners (mostly professionals or veterans) who moved South after war to take advantage of new opportunity iii. Most republicans, however, were black freedmen who held conventions and created black churches that gave them unity and political self-confidence. Were delegates to const conventions, held office- although white charges of “Negro” governments were over exaggerated or false iv. Reconstruction governments’ records were mixed- there were charges of corruption and extravagance. But corruption also rampant in N- both result of economic expansion of government services that put new strains on elected officials. Larger budgets reflected needed services previous governments had not offered: public education, public works, and poor relief b. Education i. Education improvement benefited whites and blacks- large network of schools for former slaves created (over white opposition of giving blacks “false notions of equality”), by 1870s comprehensive public school system led to great percentage of white and black population attending school ii. System divided into black and white system, integration efforts failed c. Landownership and Tenancy i. Freedmen’s Bureau and Radicals had hoped to make Reconstruction vehicle for southern landownership reform. Some redistribution of land in early years, but Pres Johnson and government returned most confiscated land to returning plantation owners ii. White landownership decreased b/c of debt, taxes or rentals. Black landownership increased, some relied on help of failed Freedman’s Bank iii. Most people did not own land during Reconstruction, worked for others. Many black agricultural laborers worked only for wages, but most worked own plots of land and paid landlords rent or share of their crop d. The Crop-Lien System i. Postwar years saw economic progress for African Americans, great increase in income. Result of black profit share increasing, greater return on labor ii. Redistribution did not lift many blacks out of poverty- black per capita income rose from ¼ of whites to ½, then grew little more afterward iii. Gains of blacks and poor whites overshadowed by ravages of crop-lien system. After war few credit institutions such as banks returned, new credit system centered on local country stores iv. Farmers did not have steady cash flow so relied on credit to buy what they needed. W/o competition stores charged incredibly high interest rates. Had to give lien (claim) on crops as collateral- bad years trapped them in debt cycle v. Effects included leading some blacks who had gained land to lose it as they became indebted, S farmers became dependent on nearly all cash crops (only possibility to escape debt). Lack of diversity led to decline in agric economy e. The African-American Family in Freedom i. Major black response during Reconstruction was effort to build or rebuild family structures, reason why many immediately left plantations was to seek relatives and family ii. Women began performing more domestic work + child caring, less field labor iii. Poverty + economic necessity led many black women to do income-producing activity for wages, reminiscent of slave activities: domestic servants, laundry 4. The Grant Administration a. The Soldier President i. Grant accepted Repub nomination for president in 1868 election. Had no political experience, appointed incompetent cabinet members, relied on party leaders and spoils system. Alienated Northerners disillusioned w/ Radical reconstruction and corruption ii. Opposing Republicans formed faction called Liberal Republicans, supported Dem nominee Horace Greeley in 1872 elections—but Grant won reelection b. The Grant Scandals i. Series of scandals emerged plaguing Grant and Republicans. Involved French-owned Credit Mobilier construction company helping build Union Pacific RR. Company heads steered contracts to company costing fed government and Union Pacific millions, stock given to Congress members to stop investigation ii. Later, “whiskey ring” found officials helping distillers cheat out of taxes. Later “Indian ring” scandal idea that “Grantism” brought corruption to government c. The Greenback Question i. Grant’s and nation’s problems confounded by Panic of 1873- began w/ failure of investment bank, later debtors wanted government to redeem war bonds w/ greenbacks (paper currency) ii. Grant and other Republicans wanted “sound” currency based on gold that would favor banks and other creditors, didn’t want to put more money in circulation iii. 1875 Republicans passed Specie Resumption Act- pegged greenback dollars to the price of gold. Satisfied creditors, hard for debtors b/c money supeopley grew little iv. National Greenback Party formed, unsuccessful but kept money issue alive d. Republican Diplomacy i. Johnson and Grant administrations had great foreign affairs successes b/c of Secretaries of State William Seward and Hamilton Fish ii. Seward bought Alaska from Russia (“Seward’s Folly”), annexed Midway Islands. Fish resolved claims against GB of violating neutrality by building ships for Confederate . Treaty of Washington allowed for arbitration of claims 5. The Abandonment of Reconstruction a. The Southern States “Redeemed” i. By 1872 nearly all S whites regained suffrage, worked as majority to overthrow Republicans. In areas of black majority whites used intimidations and violence (Ku Klux Klan, ect.) to prevent blacks from political activity ii. Klan led by former Confederate Gen Nathan Forrest. Worked to advance interest of those who would gain from white supremacy- mainly planter class and Democratic party. Most of all, however, economic pressure used b. The Ku Klux Klan Acts i. Republicans tried to stop white repression, 1870 passed Enforcement Acts (known as Ku Klux Klan Acts)- prohibited states from discriminating against voters on race, fed government given power to prosecute violations. Allowed pres to use military to protect civil rights, suspend habeas corpus in some situations ii. Grant used law in 1871 for “lawless” counties in SC c. Waning Northern Commitment i. Enforcement Acts peak of Repub enforcement of Reconstruction. After 1870 adoption of 15th Amendment many in N felt blacks should take care of themselves. Support for Liberal Democrats grew, some moves into Democratic Party ii. Panic of 1873 undermined Reconstruction support further, N industrialists explained poverty and instability thru “Social Darwinism” where those who suffered did so b/c of own weakness. Viewed poor blacks in this light, favored little government intervention to help. Depleted treasury led people to want to spend little on freedmen, poor state governments cut back on social services iii. In Congressional elections of 1874 Democrats won majority in House for first time since 1861, Grant used army to maintain Repub control in SC, FL, LA d. The Compromise of 1877 i. In 1876 elections Republicans sought new candidate to distance from corruption and attract Liberals back- chose Rutherford B Hayes, Democrats chose Sam Tilden ii. Tilden won popular vote but dispute over 20 electoral votes from 3 states. Tilden one vote shy of electoral vote majority, Hayes needed all 20 votes to win. Congress created special electoral commission to judge disputed votes, chose 8-7 to give all votes to Hayes—won election iii. Resolution result of compromises between Republicans w/ southern Democrats- Hayes would withdraw last fed troops from S if Democrats abandoned filibuster of bill iv. “Compromise of 1877” also involved more financial aid for railroads and internal improvements in S in order to help Democrats grow business and industrialize, withdraw troops to rid S of last Repub state governments e. The Legacies of Reconstruction i. Reconstruction made strides in helping former slaves but a failure b/c failed to resolve issue of race, created such bitterness that solution not attempted for another century. Failure b/c of people directing it, unwillingness to infringe on rights of states and individuals 6. The New South a. The “Redeemers” i. By 1877 w/ final withdrawal of troops every southern state government “redeemed” (white Democrats held power). “Redeemers”/“Bourbons” members of powerful ruling elite, mostly new class of merchants, industrialists, financiers. Committed to “home rule”, social conservatism, economic development ii. Dem governments lowered taxes, reduced services (incl. public education) iii. By 1870s dissenters protesting service cuts and Redeemer government commitment to pay off prewar and Reconstruction debts (e.g. VA Readjuster movement) b. Industrialization and the “New South” i. Leaders in post-Reconstruction south wanted to develop industrial economy, New South of industry, progress, thrift ii. Literature of time indicates reference for the “Lost Cause” and Old South- Joel Chandler Harris’ 1880 Uncle Remus. Also, growth of minstrel shows iii. New South included growth of textile manufacturing b/c of water power, cheap labor, low taxes. Tobacco- processing industry also grew, including James Duke’s American Tobacco Company. Iron + steel industry also grew iv. Railroad development increased dramatically, 1886 greater integration with rest of country when changed its gauge v. However, growth of South merely regained what it had done before war, average income in the South substantially lower than that of North vi. Manufacturing growth required industrial labor force. Most were women, wages much lower than in N. Mill towns restricted by company w/ labor unions suppressed, credit thru company- but led to sense of community c. Tenants and Sharecroppers i. S still primarily agrarian. 1870s/1880s growth of tenantry and debt peonage, reliance on cash crops. Crop- lien system resulted in many losing land, maj of people in S became tenant farmers ii. “Sharecropping” system where farmers promised large share of crop for land, tools- little money left over after payments. Subsistence farming gave way to only growth of cash crops- increased poverty. Coupled w/ “fence laws” (prevented people from raising livestock) led to decline in living self-sufficiently iii. Backcountry + blacks affected led populist protests to follow in 1880s/1890s d. African Americans and the New South i. Some blacks attracted to New South ideals of progress + self improvement, entered middle class by becoming professionals, owning land or business ii. This small rising group of blacks believed education vital to future of race- supported black colleges iii. Spokesman for this idea was Booker T Washington (founder of Tuskegee Institute)- believed blacks should attend school and learn skills in agricultural or trade, win respect of white population by adopting middle class standards of dress. His “Atlanta Compromise” sought to forgo political rights, concentrate on self-improvement and economic gains to earn recognition e. The Birth of Jim Crow i. Pullout of fed troops, loss of interest in Congress, and Supreme Court decisions regarding 14th & 15th Amendments (civil rights cases of 1883 prevented state discrimination but not private organizations of individuals) ii. Court validated separation of races- Plessy v Ferguson (1896) ruled separate accommodations did not deprive blacks of equal rights if accommodations were equal. Cumming v County Board of Education (1899)- laws for separate schools valid even if no comparable school for blacks existed iii. White policies shifted from subordination to segregation- black voting rights had been used by Bourbons to keep their control of Dem party, but when poor white farmers saw this they sought to disenfranchise blacks. Got around 15th Amendment thru “poll tax”/property requirement or “literacy”/understanding test iv. Jim Crow Laws segregated almost every area of southern life. 1890s increased violence (lynching, etc) to inhibit black movement for equal rights. An anti- lynching movement did emerge led by Ida B. Wells to pass national law enabling fed got to punish those responsible for lynching v. White supremacy diluted class animosities between poor whites and Bourbon oligarchs. Economic issues played secondary role to race, distracting people from social inequalities that affected blacks and whites