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OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this experiment are:


1. To develop the relationship between torque T and shear stress with angle of twist .
2. To determine the modulus of rigidity G of the material.
3. To determine the maximum shear stress at the elastic limit and at failure of the material.

THEORY
1. General
At the limit of the elastic range yielding will first occur in the outermost fibres whilst the
core is still elastic. As the specimen is twisted further into the plastic region a greater
proportion of the cross-section yields until there is a plastic zone through into the centre
of the bar. Work hardening occurs at a gradually decreasing rate as straining proceeds.
However, there is no drop in the curve as necking does not occur.
Torsion is a variation of shear occurring in machine axles, drive shafts and twist drills.
From observation, the angle of twist of the shaft is proportional to the applied torque and
to the shaft length. When subjected to torsion, every cross-section of a circular shaft
remains plane and undistorted, because a circular shaft is axisymmetric. Cross-sections of
noncircular shafts are distorted when subjected to torsion.

2. Stress, Strain and Angle of Twist


Consider a solid circular shaft of radius r and length L subjected to a torque T [Nm] at
one end, the other end being fixed (Figure 1). Under the action of this toque, a radial line
at the free end of the shaft twists through an angle [rad], point A moves to B, and AB
subtends an angle at the fixed end. This is then the angle of distortion of the shaft, i.e.
shear strain.

A
z

L
Figure 1: Schematic representation of torsional deformation.
Arc AB = r = L
= r/L-----(1)
But = /G, where [N/m] is the shear stress and G [N/m] is the modulus of rigidity.
By substitution and rearranging
/r = G/L-----(2)
The torque can be equated to the sum of the moments of the tangential stresses on the
elements 2rr.
T = (2rdr)r = (G/L) (2rdr)r = (G/L)J-----(3)
Where J [m4] is called the polar second moment of area (=r4/2).
Combining (2) and (3) produces the so-called simple theory of torsion, and gives the
fundamental relationship between shear stress, torque and geometry.
T/J = /r = G/ L-----(4)
Showing that, for a given torque, the shear stress is proportional to the radius.
The shear stresses which are developed in a shaft subjected to pure torsion are indicated
as
= (G/L)r-----(5)

Now from the definition of the modulus rigidity G, = G. It therefore follows that the
two equations may be combined to relate the shear stress and strain in the shaft to the
angle of twist per unit length, thus
= (G/L)r = G-----(6)
This equation indicates that the shear stress and shear strain vary linearly with radius and
have their maximum value at the outside radius.

SPECIMENS AND EQUIPMENTS


1. Torsion testing machine Norwood 50 Nm
2. Vernier caliper
3. Torsion specimens: steel, brass and aluminium

PROCEDURES
1. The initial length and the initial gauge length diameter of the specimen were measured.
2. The specimen was mounted between the loading device and the torque measurement
unit into the straining hexagon sockets.
3. The hand-wheel was turned as required aligning the specimen.
4. The tailstock unit was slide so that the specimen was fully inserted into the hexagon
sockets.
5. It was made sure that there was no preload on the specimen.
6. The pointer on the zero degree point on the protractor scale was zeroed.
7. The digital torque meter was adjusted to read zero.
8. The hand-wheel was turned clockwise slowly to load the specimen. It was only turned
for a defined angle increment.
9. The torque value was read from the digital torque meter and it was noticed together
with the indicated angle of twist.
10. The process of steps 8 and 9 was continued until fracture occurs.
11. The experiment was repeated for other specimens.

RESULT
Calculation:
T/J = G/L = /r
Torque (Nm)

Shear stress (Nm-2 at radius r)

J Polar moment of area (m4)

Angle of twist (radius, over length L)

G Shear modulus (MNm-2)

L Length of the bar (m)

r - Radius (m)
From the formula above modulus of rigidity, G can be calculated by

Gk

L
J

Where k is the gradient of the graph torque, T versus angle of twist,.


For Steel
Dimension

Reading 1

Reading 2

Reading 3

Initial gauge length


diameter
Initial length

6.98

6.92

6.00

Average
reading
6.63

74.96

74.66

75.00

74.87

Final gauge length

5.90

5.98

5.90

5.93

76.76

75.62

75.32

75.90

Final
length

k=

Sheer stress,

Torque,
T
(Nm)
0.00
0.00

Angle of Twist,
()
(rad)

0
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
90.00
100.00
110.00
120.00
130.00
140.00
150.00
160.00
170.00
180.00
190.00
200.00
210.00
220.00
230.00
240.00
250.00
260.00
270.00
280.00
290.00
300.00
310.00
320.00
330.00
340.00

0.17
0.35
0.52
0.70
0.87
1.05
1.22
1.40
1.57
1.75
1.92
2.09
2.27
2.44
2.62
2.79
2.97
3.14
3.32
3.49
3.67
3.84
4.01
4.19
4.36
4.54
4.71
4.89
5.06
5.24
5.41
5.59
5.76
5.93

15.20
19.20
20.00
20.10
20.40
20.50
20.50
20.50
20.20
20.00
19.90
19.80
19.90
20.00
20.00
20.00
20.10
20.10
20.10
20.10
19.90
19.90
19.90
19.90
19.90
20.00
20.00
20.00
20.00
20.00
20.00
20.00
19.70
10.50

= Tr/J
( Pa )

0.0
265759493.67
335696202.53
349683544.30
351431962.03
356677215.19
358425632.91
358425632.91
358425632.91
353180379.75
349683544.30
347935126.58
346186708.86
347935126.58
349683544.30
349683544.30
349683544.30
351431962.03
351431962.03
351431962.03
351431962.03
347935126.58
347935126.58
347935126.58
347935126.58
347935126.58
349683544.30
349683544.30
349683544.30
349683544.30
349683544.30
349683544.30
349683544.30
344438291.14
183583860.76

= r/L
(rad)

0.00
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.12
0.12
0.13
0.14
0.15
0.16
0.16
0.17
0.18
0.19
0.19
0.20
0.21
0.22
0.22
0.23
0.24
0.25
0.26
0.26

Torque,T (Nm) versus angle of twist,


25.00

20.00

15.00

Torque(Nm)
Steel

10.00

5.00

0.00
0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

8.00

Angle of twist,

Shear stress versus angle of twist,


450000000.0
400000000.0
350000000.0
300000000.0

shear stress 250000000.0


Pa
200000000.0

Steel

150000000.0
100000000.0
50000000.0
0.0
0.00

2.00

4.00

angle of twist,

6.00

8.00

shear stress versus shear strain


450000000.0
400000000.0
350000000.0
300000000.0

shear stress 250000000.0


Pa
200000000.0

Steel

150000000.0
100000000.0
50000000.0
0.0
0.0000 0.0500 0.1000 0.1500 0.2000 0.2500 0.3000

shear strain

1.Proportional Limit Shear Stress in Torsion

26.58x108 Pa

2.Shear modulus of elasticity

3.35GPa

3.Ultimate Shear Stress

3.58x108 Pa

For Brass
Determination
Readings for Brass

3 Average

6.00

6.00

6.00

6.00

75.84

76.04

76.00

75.96

(mm)

5.90

5.92

5.88

5.90

Final length, L (mm)

79.4

79.42

79.32

79.38

Initial gauge length diamater, d0


(mm)
Initial length, L0 (mm)
Final gauge length diamater, d

For Brass,

/32 x D4

/32 x (6.00 x 10-3)4

1.27 x 10-10 m4

= (7.7-0) / (0.17-0)
= 45.29Nmrad-1

= (45.29x 75.96x 10-3) / 1.27 x 10-10


= 27.04GNm-2

Shear stress, = Gr / L

For Brass,
G = 27.04 GNm-2
= 0.17 rad
L = 75.96 x 10-3 m
r = 3.000 x 10-3 m
= Gr / L
= (27.04x 109)(0.17)(3.00 x 10-3) / (75.96 x 10-3)
= 181.55 MPa

Brass
Angle of Twist,
()
(rad)
0
0.00
10
0.17
20
0.35
30
0.52
40
0.70
50
0.87
60
1.05
70
1.22
80
1.40
90
1.57
100
1.75
110
1.92
120
2.09
130
2.27
140
2.44
150
2.62
160
2.79
170
2.97
180
3.14
190
3.32
200
3.49
210
3.67
220
3.84
230
4.01
240
4.19
250
4.36
260
4.54
270
4.71
280
4.89
290
5.06
300
5.24
310
5.41
320
5.59
330
5.76
340
5.93
350
6.11
360
6.28

Torque,
T
(Nm)
0.00
7.70
9.00
9.50
9.90
10.20
10.40
10.60
10.80
10.90
11.10
11.30
11.40
11.50
11.70
11.80
11.90
12.00
12.20
12.30
12.40
12.50
12.60
12.70
12.80
12.90
13.00
13.10
13.20
13.30
13.40
13.50
13.60
13.60
13.80
13.80
13.90

= Tr/J
( Pa )
0.0
181889763.8
212598425.2
224409448.8
233858267.7
240944881.9
245669291.3
250393700.8
255118110.2
257480315.0
262204724.4
266929133.9
269291338.6
271653543.3
276377952.8
278740157.5
281102362.2
283464566.9
288188976.4
290551181.1
292913385.8
295275590.6
297637795.3
300000000.0
302362204.7
304724409.4
307086614.2
309448818.9
311811023.6
314173228.3
316535433.1
318897637.8
321259842.5
321259842.5
325984252.0
325984252.0
328346456.7

= r/L
(rad)
0.0000
0.0069
0.0138
0.0207
0.0276
0.0345
0.0414
0.0483
0.0551
0.0620
0.0689
0.0758
0.0827
0.0896
0.0965
0.1034
0.1103
0.1172
0.1241
0.1310
0.1379
0.1448
0.1516
0.1585
0.1654
0.1723
0.1792
0.1861
0.1930
0.1999
0.2068
0.2137
0.2206
0.2275
0.2344
0.2413
0.2482

370
380
390
400
410
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
510
520
530
540
550
560
570
580
590
600
610
620
630
640
650
660
670
680
690
700
710
720
730
740
750
760
770

6.46
6.63
6.81
6.98
7.16
7.33
7.50
7.68
7.85
8.03
8.20
8.38
8.55
8.73
8.90
9.08
9.25
9.42
9.60
9.77
9.95
10.12
10.30
10.47
10.65
10.82
11.00
11.17
11.34
11.52
11.69
11.87
12.04
12.22
12.39
12.57
12.74
12.92
13.09
13.26
13.44

14.00
14.10
14.20
14.20
14.30
14.40
14.50
14.50
14.60
14.70
14.70
14.70
14.90
14.90
15.00
15.10
15.20
15.20
15.30
15.40
15.40
15.40
15.50
15.60
15.60
15.70
15.70
15.80
15.80
15.90
15.90
16.00
16.10
16.10
16.20
16.20
16.20
16.30
16.40
16.40
16.40

330708661.4
333070866.1
335433070.9
335433070.9
337795275.6
340157480.3
342519685.0
342519685.0
344881889.8
347244094.5
347244094.5
347244094.5
351968503.9
351968503.9
354330708.7
356692913.4
359055118.1
359055118.1
361417322.8
363779527.6
363779527.6
363779527.6
366141732.3
368503937.0
368503937.0
370866141.7
370866141.7
373228346.5
373228346.5
375590551.2
375590551.2
377952755.9
380314960.6
380314960.6
382677165.4
382677165.4
382677165.4
385039370.1
387401574.8
387401574.8
387401574.8

0.2550
0.2619
0.2688
0.2757
0.2826
0.2895
0.2964
0.3033
0.3102
0.3171
0.3240
0.3309
0.3378
0.3447
0.3515
0.3584
0.3653
0.3722
0.3791
0.3860
0.3929
0.3998
0.4067
0.4136
0.4205
0.4274
0.4343
0.4412
0.4481
0.4549
0.4618
0.4687
0.4756
0.4825
0.4894
0.4963
0.5032
0.5101
0.5170
0.5239
0.5308

780
790
800
810
820
830
840
850
860
870
880
890

13.61
13.79
13.96
14.14
14.31
14.49
14.66
14.84
15.01
15.18
15.36
15.53

16.50
16.50
16.60
16.60
16.60
16.70
16.70
16.80
16.80
16.90
16.90
-0.22

389763779.5
389763779.5
392125984.3
392125984.3
392125984.3
394488189.0
394488189.0
396850393.7
396850393.7
399212598.4
399212598.4
-5196850.4

0.5377
0.5446
0.5514
0.5583
0.5652
0.5721
0.5790
0.5859
0.5928
0.5997
0.6066
0.6135

Torque,T (Nm) versus angle of twist,


20.00

15.00

10.00

Torque(Nm)
Brass

5.00

0.00
0.00
-5.00

5.00

10.00

Angle of twist,

15.00

20.00

Shear stress versus angle of twist,


450000000.0
400000000.0
350000000.0
300000000.0
250000000.0

shear stress
200000000.0
Pa

Brass

150000000.0
100000000.0
50000000.0
0.0
-50000000.0 0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

angle of twist,

shear stress versus shear strain


450000000.0

400000000.0
350000000.0
300000000.0
250000000.0

shear stress
200000000.0
Pa

Brass

150000000.0
100000000.0
50000000.0
0.0
0.0000
-50000000.0

0.2000

0.4000

shear strain

0.6000

1.Proportional Limit Shear Stress in Torsion

2.12x108 Pa

2.Shear modulus of elasticity

26.36 GPa

3.Ultimate Shear Stress

3.99 x108 Pa

0.8000

For aluminium

Determination number

Readings for Aluminium

Average
1

Initial gauge length diameter


d0 (mm)

6.04

6.00

6.06

6.03

Initial length
L0 (mm)

76.40

76.18

76.24

76.30

Final gauge length diameter


d (mm)

5.94

5.98

6.00

5.97

Final length
L (mm)

80.00

79.76

80.00

79.92

For aluminium,
J

/32 x D4

/32 x (6.03 x 10-3)4

1.30 x 10-10 rad.m4

= (4.3-0) / (0.175-0)
= 24.57Nmrad-1

= 14.43GNm-2
Shear stress, = Gr / L

For Aluminium,
G = 14.43GNm-2
= 0.175 rad
L0 = 76.30 x 10-3 m

r = 3.015 x 10-3 m
= Gr / L
= (14.43GNm-2)( 0.175 rad)( 3.015 x 10-3 m) / (76.30 x 10-3 m)
= 99.79 MPa

Aluminium
Angle of Twist,
[]
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270

[rad]
0.000
0.175
0.349
0.524
0.698
0.873
1.047
1.222
1.396
1.571
1.745
1.920
2.094
2.269
2.443
2.618
2.793
2.967
3.142
3.316
3.491
3.665
3.840
4.014
4.189
4.363
4.538
4.712

Torque, T
T
[Nm]
0
4.3
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5
5.1
5.2
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.6
5.6
5.7
5.7
5.8
5.8
5.8
5.9
5.9
5.9
5.9
6

= Tr/J
[ Pa ]
0
99726923.08
104365384.6
106684615.4
109003846.2
111323076.9
113642307.7
115961538.5
118280769.2
120600000
120600000
122919230.8
125238461.5
125238461.5
127557692.3
129876923.1
129876923.1
129876923.1
132196153.8
132196153.8
134515384.6
134515384.6
134515384.6
136834615.4
136834615.4
136834615.4
136834615.4
139153846.2

=
r/L
[rad]
0
0.007
0.014
0.021
0.028
0.034
0.041
0.048
0.055
0.062
0.069
0.076
0.083
0.090
0.097
0.103
0.110
0.117
0.124
0.131
0.138
0.145
0.152
0.159
0.166
0.172
0.179
0.186

280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
400
410
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
510
520
530
540
550
560
570
580
590
600
610
620
630
640
650
660

4.887
5.061
5.236
5.411
5.585
5.760
5.934
6.109
6.283
6.458
6.632
6.807
6.981
7.156
7.330
7.505
7.679
7.854
8.029
8.203
8.378
8.552
8.727
8.901
9.076
9.250
9.425
9.599
9.774
9.948
10.123
10.297
10.472
10.647
10.821
10.996
11.170
11.345
11.519

6
6
6
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.3
6.3
6.3
6.3
6.3
6.3
6.3
6.3
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5

139153846.2
139153846.2
139153846.2
141473076.9
141473076.9
141473076.9
141473076.9
141473076.9
141473076.9
143792307.7
143792307.7
143792307.7
143792307.7
143792307.7
143792307.7
146111538.5
146111538.5
146111538.5
146111538.5
146111538.5
146111538.5
146111538.5
146111538.5
148430769.2
148430769.2
148430769.2
148430769.2
148430769.2
148430769.2
148430769.2
150750000
150750000
150750000
150750000
150750000
150750000
150750000
150750000
150750000

0.193
0.200
0.207
0.214
0.221
0.228
0.234
0.241
0.248
0.255
0.262
0.269
0.276
0.283
0.290
0.297
0.303
0.310
0.317
0.324
0.331
0.338
0.345
0.352
0.359
0.366
0.372
0.379
0.386
0.393
0.400
0.407
0.414
0.421
0.428
0.434
0.441
0.448
0.455

670
680
690
700
710
720
730
740
750
760
770
780
790
800
810
820
830
840
850
860
870
880
890
900
910
920
930
940
950
960
970
980
990
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1050

11.694
11.868
12.043
12.217
12.392
12.566
12.741
12.915
13.090
13.265
13.439
13.614
13.788
13.963
14.137
14.312
14.486
14.661
14.835
15.010
15.184
15.359
15.533
15.708
15.882
16.057
16.232
16.406
16.581
16.755
16.930
17.104
17.279
17.453
17.628
17.802
17.977
18.151
18.326

6.5
6.5
6.5
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8

150750000
150750000
150750000
153069230.8
153069230.8
153069230.8
153069230.8
153069230.8
153069230.8
153069230.8
153069230.8
153069230.8
153069230.8
153069230.8
155388461.5
155388461.5
155388461.5
155388461.5
155388461.5
155388461.5
155388461.5
155388461.5
155388461.5
155388461.5
155388461.5
155388461.5
155388461.5
155388461.5
155388461.5
155388461.5
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3

0.462
0.469
0.476
0.483
0.490
0.497
0.503
0.510
0.517
0.524
0.531
0.538
0.545
0.552
0.559
0.566
0.572
0.579
0.586
0.593
0.600
0.607
0.614
0.621
0.628
0.634
0.641
0.648
0.655
0.662
0.669
0.676
0.683
0.690
0.697
0.703
0.710
0.717
0.724

1060
1070
1080
1090
1100
1110
1120
1130
1140
1150
1160
1170
1180
1190
1200
1210
1220
1230
1240
1250
1260
1270
1280
1290
1300
1310
1320
1330
1340
1350
1360
1370
1380
1390
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440

18.500
18.675
18.850
19.024
19.199
19.373
19.548
19.722
19.897
20.071
20.246
20.420
20.595
20.769
20.944
21.118
21.293
21.468
21.642
21.817
21.991
22.166
22.340
22.515
22.689
22.864
23.038
23.213
23.387
23.562
23.736
23.911
24.086
24.260
24.435
24.609
24.784
24.958
25.133

6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9

157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
157707692.3
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1

0.731
0.738
0.745
0.752
0.759
0.766
0.772
0.779
0.786
0.793
0.800
0.807
0.814
0.821
0.828
0.834
0.841
0.848
0.855
0.862
0.869
0.876
0.883
0.890
0.897
0.903
0.910
0.917
0.924
0.931
0.938
0.945
0.952
0.959
0.966
0.972
0.979
0.986
0.993

1450
1460
1470
1480
1490
1500
1510
1520
1530
1540
1550
1560
1570
1580
1590
1600
1610
1620
1630
1640
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
1800
1810
1820
1830

25.307
25.482
25.656
25.831
26.005
26.180
26.354
26.529
26.704
26.878
27.053
27.227
27.402
27.576
27.751
27.925
28.100
28.274
28.449
28.623
28.798
28.972
29.147
29.322
29.496
29.671
29.845
30.020
30.194
30.369
30.543
30.718
30.892
31.067
31.241
31.416
31.590
31.765
31.940

6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7

160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
160026923.1
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8

1.000
1.007
1.014
1.021
1.028
1.035
1.041
1.048
1.055
1.062
1.069
1.076
1.083
1.090
1.097
1.103
1.110
1.117
1.124
1.131
1.138
1.145
1.152
1.159
1.166
1.172
1.179
1.186
1.193
1.200
1.207
1.214
1.221
1.228
1.235
1.241
1.248
1.255
1.262

1840
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
2050
2060
2070
2080
2090
2100
2110
2120
2130
2140
2150
2160
2170
2180
2190
2200
2210
2220

32.114
32.289
32.463
32.638
32.812
32.987
33.161
33.336
33.510
33.685
33.859
34.034
34.208
34.383
34.558
34.732
34.907
35.081
35.256
35.430
35.605
35.779
35.954
36.128
36.303
36.477
36.652
36.826
37.001
37.176
37.350
37.525
37.699
37.874
38.048
38.223
38.397
38.572
38.746

7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1

162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
162346153.8
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6

1.269
1.276
1.283
1.290
1.297
1.303
1.310
1.317
1.324
1.331
1.338
1.345
1.352
1.359
1.366
1.372
1.379
1.386
1.393
1.400
1.407
1.414
1.421
1.428
1.435
1.441
1.448
1.455
1.462
1.469
1.476
1.483
1.490
1.497
1.503
1.510
1.517
1.524
1.531

2230
2240
2250
2260
2270
2280
2290
2300
2310
2320
2330
2340
2350
2360
2370
2380
2390
2400
2410
2420
2430
2440
2450
2460
2470
2480
2490
2500
2510
2520
2530
2540
2550
2560
2570
2580
2590
2600
2610

38.921
39.095
39.270
39.444
39.619
39.794
39.968
40.143
40.317
40.492
40.666
40.841
41.015
41.190
41.364
41.539
41.713
41.888
42.062
42.237
42.412
42.586
42.761
42.935
43.110
43.284
43.459
43.633
43.808
43.982
44.157
44.331
44.506
44.680
44.855
45.029
45.204
45.379
45.553

7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.1
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2

164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
164665384.6
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4

1.538
1.545
1.552
1.559
1.566
1.572
1.579
1.586
1.593
1.600
1.607
1.614
1.621
1.628
1.635
1.641
1.648
1.655
1.662
1.669
1.676
1.683
1.690
1.697
1.703
1.710
1.717
1.724
1.731
1.738
1.745
1.752
1.759
1.766
1.772
1.779
1.786
1.793
1.800

2620
2630
2640
2650
2660
2670
2680
2690
2700
2710
2720
2730
2740
2750
2760
2770
2780
2790
2800
2810
2820
2830
2840
2850
2860
2870
2880
2890
2900
2910
2920
2930
2940
2950
2960
2970
2980
2990
3000

45.728
45.902
46.077
46.251
46.426
46.600
46.775
46.949
47.124
47.298
47.473
47.647
47.822
47.997
48.171
48.346
48.520
48.695
48.869
49.044
49.218
49.393
49.567
49.742
49.916
50.091
50.265
50.440
50.615
50.789
50.964
51.138
51.313
51.487
51.662
51.836
52.011
52.185
52.360

7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3

166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
166984615.4
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2

1.807
1.814
1.821
1.828
1.835
1.841
1.848
1.855
1.862
1.869
1.876
1.883
1.890
1.897
1.903
1.910
1.917
1.924
1.931
1.938
1.945
1.952
1.959
1.966
1.972
1.979
1.986
1.993
2.000
2.007
2.014
2.021
2.028
2.035
2.041
2.048
2.055
2.062
2.069

3010
3020
3030
3040
3050
3060
3070
3080
3090
3100
3110
3120
3130
3140
3150
3160
3170
3180
3190
3200
3210
3220
3230
3240
3250
3260
3270
3280
3290
3300
3310
3320
3330
3340
3350
3360
3370
3380
3390

52.534
52.709
52.883
53.058
53.233
53.407
53.582
53.756
53.931
54.105
54.280
54.454
54.629
54.803
54.978
55.152
55.327
55.501
55.676
55.851
56.025
56.200
56.374
56.549
56.723
56.898
57.072
57.247
57.421
57.596
57.770
57.945
58.119
58.294
58.469
58.643
58.818
58.992
59.167

7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.5

169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
169303846.2
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
171623076.9
173942307.7

2.076
2.083
2.090
2.097
2.103
2.110
2.117
2.124
2.131
2.138
2.145
2.152
2.159
2.166
2.172
2.179
2.186
2.193
2.200
2.207
2.214
2.221
2.228
2.235
2.241
2.248
2.255
2.262
2.269
2.276
2.283
2.290
2.297
2.303
2.310
2.317
2.324
2.331
2.338

3400
3410
3420
3430
3440
3450
3460
3470
3480
3490
3500
3510
3520
3530
3540
3550
3560
3570
3580
3590
3600
3610
3620
3630
3640
3650
3660
3670
3680
3690
3700
3710
3720
3730
3740
3750
3760
3770
3780

59.341
59.516
59.690
59.865
60.039
60.214
60.388
60.563
60.737
60.912
61.087
61.261
61.436
61.610
61.785
61.959
62.134
62.308
62.483
62.657
62.832
63.006
63.181
63.355
63.530
63.705
63.879
64.054
64.228
64.403
64.577
64.752
64.926
65.101
65.275
65.450
65.624
65.799
65.973

7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5

173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7

2.345
2.352
2.359
2.366
2.372
2.379
2.386
2.393
2.400
2.407
2.414
2.421
2.428
2.435
2.441
2.448
2.455
2.462
2.469
2.476
2.483
2.490
2.497
2.503
2.510
2.517
2.524
2.531
2.538
2.545
2.552
2.559
2.566
2.572
2.579
2.586
2.593
2.600
2.607

3790
3800
3810
3820
3830
3840
3850
3860
3870
3880
3890
3900
3910
3920
3930
3940
3950
3960
3970
3980
3990
4000
4010
4020
4030
4040
4050
4060
4070
4080
4090
4100
4110
4120
4130
4140
4150
4160
4170

66.148
66.323
66.497
66.672
66.846
67.021
67.195
67.370
67.544
67.719
67.893
68.068
68.242
68.417
68.591
68.766
68.941
69.115
69.290
69.464
69.639
69.813
69.988
70.162
70.337
70.511
70.686
70.860
71.035
71.209
71.384
71.558
71.733
71.908
72.082
72.257
72.431
72.606
72.780

7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.6
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7

173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
173942307.7
176261538.5
176261538.5
176261538.5
176261538.5
176261538.5
176261538.5
176261538.5
176261538.5
176261538.5
176261538.5
176261538.5
176261538.5
176261538.5
176261538.5
176261538.5
176261538.5
176261538.5
176261538.5
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2

2.614
2.621
2.628
2.635
2.641
2.648
2.655
2.662
2.669
2.676
2.683
2.690
2.697
2.703
2.710
2.717
2.724
2.731
2.738
2.745
2.752
2.759
2.766
2.772
2.779
2.786
2.793
2.800
2.807
2.814
2.821
2.828
2.835
2.841
2.848
2.855
2.862
2.869
2.876

4180
4190
4200
4210
4220
4230
4240
4250
4260
4270
4280
4290
4300
4310
4320
4330
4340
4350
4360
4370
4380
4390
4400
4410
4420
4430
4440
4450
4460
4470
4480
4490
4500
4510
4520
4530
4540
4550
4560

72.955
73.129
73.304
73.478
73.653
73.827
74.002
74.176
74.351
74.526
74.700
74.875
75.049
75.224
75.398
75.573
75.747
75.922
76.096
76.271
76.445
76.620
76.794
76.969
77.144
77.318
77.493
77.667
77.842
78.016
78.191
78.365
78.540
78.714
78.889
79.063
79.238
79.412
79.587

7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8

178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
178580769.2
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000

2.883
2.890
2.897
2.904
2.910
2.917
2.924
2.931
2.938
2.945
2.952
2.959
2.966
2.972
2.979
2.986
2.993
3.000
3.007
3.014
3.021
3.028
3.035
3.041
3.048
3.055
3.062
3.069
3.076
3.083
3.090
3.097
3.104
3.110
3.117
3.124
3.131
3.138
3.145

4570
4580
4590
4600
4610
4620
4630
4640
4650
4660
4670
4680
4690
4700
4710
4720
4730
4740
4750
4760
4770
4780
4790
4800
4810

79.762
79.936
80.111
80.285
80.460
80.634
80.809
80.983
81.158
81.332
81.507
81.681
81.856
82.030
82.205
82.380
82.554
82.729
82.903
83.078
83.252
83.427
83.601
83.776
83.950

7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.8

180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000
180900000

3.152
3.159
3.166
3.172
3.179
3.186
3.193
3.200
3.207
3.214
3.221
3.228
3.235
3.241
3.248
3.255
3.262
3.269
3.276
3.283
3.290
3.297
3.304
3.310
3.317

Torque,T (Nm) versus Angle of Twist,


Torque,T (Nm)

10
8
6
4

Aluminium

2
0
0

20

40

60

Angle of Twist, (rad)

80

100

Shear Stress,
(Pa)

Shear Stress versus Angle of Twist,


200000000
180000000
160000000
140000000
120000000
100000000
80000000
60000000
40000000
20000000
0
0.000

Aluminium

20.000

40.000

60.000

80.000

100.000

Angle of Twist, (rad)

shear stress,
Pa

Shear Stress versus Shear Strain


200000000
180000000
160000000
140000000
120000000
100000000
80000000
60000000
40000000
20000000
0

Aluminium

Shear Strain

1.Proportional Limit Shear Stress in Torsion

0.99x108 Pa

2.Shear modulus of elasticity

14.2 GPa

3.Ultimate Shear Stress

1.81x108 Pa

DISCUSSIONS
1. Compare and discuss on the experimental results with the theory.
From the graph plotted for torque, T against angle of twist, , we got a straight line from
the beginning original with a positive gradient. At this stage, when the torque is removed
and the specimen will go back to its original shape because it is in the elastic region.
Based on the graph,we know that the twist angle is keep increasing even the increment of
the torque is very small. After going through the elastic region, the specimen will enter
the plastic region and undergo plastic deformation and reach the ultimate strengh withthe
increasing in twist angle until fracture occurs.
For Aluminium:
From the experiment, we know that the twist angle is proportional to the torque. This is
because the aluminium is a ductile material and aluminium can returns to its original
shape when the torque is removed whereby the torque apply is less than the proportional
stage. However, the aluminium graph is not a straight line as a typical shear stressstrain
curve is presented a mainly brittle behaviour is observed. The twist angle will increase
even the torque is very small. This situation will continue until fracture occurs.
For Brass:
Similarly with the aluminium, we know that the twist angle is proportional to the torque.
This is because brass is also a brittle material and brass can returns to its original shape
when the torque is removed whereby the load apply is less than the proportional stage.
Followed by the increment in the twist angle even the torque is very small. It will
continuously happen until fracture occurs.

For Steel:
Based on the experiment, we know that the twist angle is proportional to the torque. This
is because the steel is a brittle material and steel can returns to its original shape when the
torque is removed whereby the torque apply is less than the proportional stage. After that,
the twist angle will increase even the torque is very small after that the specimen will
start to fracture and fully break finally. For the aluminium the theoretical value is
25.5GPa however the value of shear modulus that we get in experiment is 14.91GPa.
While for the brass the theoretical value of shear modulus, G is 37GPa but in our

experiment the value of shear modulus from the graph torque, T versus angle twist is
10.25GPa.However, for the specimen steel, the theoretical value of shear modulus is
79.3GPa but in the experiment the value of shear modulus we get is 13.98GPa.

2. Discuss on the mechanical properties of the tested specimens in shear.


The mechanical properties which can be obtained from the experiment are the shear
stress, shear stress proportional limit, ultimate shear stress and the modulus of rigidity.
a) Shear stress, is the stress applied parallel or tangential to the surface of a material.
From the results obtained, the shear stress of steel is the highest, followed by brass and
aluminium is the lowest.
b) Shear stress proportional limit is the limit where the specimen will return to its original
dimensions and shape when the load applied is removed. From the graph obtained, the
proportional limit of steel is the highest, followed by brass and aluminium is the lowest.
c) Ultimate shear stress is the maximum shear stress that can be sustained by a material
before rupture. It is the ultimate strength of a material subjected to shear loading. From
the graph obtained, the ultimate shear stress of steel is the highest, followed by brass and
aluminium is the lowest.
d) Modulus of rigidity, G can be obtained from the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain.
It is the rate of change of strain as a function of stress in a specimen subjected to shear or
torsion loading. From the experiment, the modulus of rigidity of steel is the highest,
followed by brass and aluminium is the lowest. This proves that the steel has the highest
brittleness while aluminium has the highest ductility.

3. Discuss on the factors that can be affected to the experimental result.


Factors that can be affected to the experimental result are:
a) The equipment used in our experiment was old and rusted and friction may be created
in the system, hence the value obtained will differ from the theoretical value.
b) In this experiment, the loads must be applied constantly to obtain a perfect rotation.
However, this experiment was done manually. As a result, it was impossible to apply a
constant load on the specimens. Thus, the values obtained from the experiment would
definitely different from the theoretical values.

c) The difference between theoretical and experimental value was caused by the purity of
the specimens used. In our experiment the specimen used was not fully pure since they
contain impurities and there are imperfections in their structures, contrast with the one
that being used in order to get the theoretical value.
d) In this experiment, the torsion force must be continuously and uniformly supplied. If
we did not control and turn the holder of torsion machine properly with constant force
and rate, it was difficult to get smooth cycle and this will affect our results.
e) Parallax error occurs when our eyes was not placed perpendicular to the scale of the
measuring instruments such as vernier caliper and protractor.
f) The time interval between taking the two continuous reading was very near, so we
cannot get the very accurate readings during the experiment because when the readings
shown by the torsion machine was not rigid and the same time we must get the next
reading within a few seconds.

CONCLUSIONS
1. From this experiment, the mechanical properties of the specimens such as the shear
stress, shear stress proportional limit, ultimate shear stress and the modulus of rigidity are
obtained. When a torque is acting on the specimens, the specimens would experience
torsion until the specimens have reached their fracture points. Furthermore, the modulus
of rigidity, G can be calculated by using the gradient of the graphs plotted for shear stress
against shear strain. From the experiment, the modulus of rigidity of steel is the highest,
followed by brass and aluminium is the lowest. This proves that the steel has the highest
brittleness while aluminium has the highest ductility.
2. Many mechanical structures are subjected to torsion during their operations. By testing
these materials used in these structures on torsion test, the manufacturers are able to
simulate real life service conditions, check products quality, verify designs, and ensure
proper manufacturing techniques as the shear stress, shear stress proportional limit,
ultimate shear stress and the modulus of rigidity of these materials are known.

REFERENCES
-http://www.sut.ac.th/engineering/metal/pdf/MechMet/10_Torsion%20test.pdf
-http://www.mae.wmich.edu/faculty/kujawski/torsion%20test.pdf
-http://www.instron.us/wa/applications/test_types/torsion/default.aspx?ref=http://www.
google.com.my/url
-http://www.scielo.br/pdf/mr/v11n3/09.pdf

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