Evergreen forest

An evergreen forest: composed of Pine trees. Introduction An evergreen forest is a forest consisting entirely or mainly of evergreen trees that retain green foliage all year round. Such forests reign the tropics primarily as broadleaf evergreens, and in temperate and boreal latitudes primarily as coniferous evergreens.

Evergreen forest Moist forest, montane forest,mossy forests, Laurel forest, cloud forest, fog forest, are generally tropical or subtropical or mild temperate evergreen forest, found in areas with high humidity and relatively stable and mild temperatures, characterized by a persistent, frequent or seasonal low-level cloud cover, usually at the canopy level. Cloud forests often exhibit an abundance of mosses covering the ground and vegetation.

Tropical evergreen forests Further information: Cloud forest, Laurel forest, and Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests Tropical evergreen forests are usually found in areas receiving more than 200 cm of rainfall and having a temperature of 15 C to 30 C. They occupy about seven per cent of the Earth's land surface and harbour more than half of the worlds plants and animals. Found mostly near the equator, these tropical forests are dense, multi-layered and harbour many types of plants and animals. The trees are evergreen as there is no period of drought or frost. They are mostly tall hardwood trees with broad leaves that release excess water through transpiration. In India, evergreen forests are found on the western slopes of the Western Ghats in States such as Maharashtra, Kerala and Karnataka. And also found in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, West Bengal and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. They are also found in the hills of Jaintia and Khasi. Some of the trees found in Indian Tropical Forests are rosewood, mahogany and ebony. Bamboo and reeds are also common. Because it is very dense sunlight do not reach the ground.

Temperate evergreen forests Temperate evergreen forests, coniferous, broadleaf, and mixed, are found largely in the temperate mid-lattitudes of Montane North America, Siberia, Canada, Australia, Africa and Scandinavia. Broadleaf evergreen forests occur in particular in eastern North America and in countries around the Mediterranean Basin, such as Lebanon and Morocco. Many temperate evergreen forests occur along the eastern margins of major land masses, e.g., in southeastern United States, southern China and in southeastern Brazil. Other examples include the wet temperate and subtropical conifer forests of northwestern North America. Temperate evergreen forests are the regional climax vegetation, commonly dominated by hardy trees that can deal with sandy, rocky, and various other soils of poor quality. Most such communities also are subject to intermittent fire, drought and cold. Coniferous temperate evergreen forests are most frequently dominated by species in the families Pinaceae and Cupressaceae. Broadleaf temperate evergreen forests include those in which Fagaceae such as oaks are common, those in which Nothofagaceae predominate, and the Eucalyptus forests of the Southern Hemisphere. There also are assorted temperate evergreen forests dominated by other families of trees, such as Lauraceae in laurel forest. Evergreen forests around the world are under threat of logging, mining, oil and gas developments, pollution, hydroelectric projects and other human developments planned in these areas.

Brief notes on the Evergreen and Deciduous Forests 1. Evergreen: The Tropical Evergreen Forests lie on either side of the equator in places that receive more than 80% of annual rainfall. The hot and humid condition causes the luxuriant growth of a variety of vegetation. In some places, the growth is thick that sunlight rarely reaches the ground. Forests of Amazon and Congo Basin are dark and gloomy in many places. Common hardwood trees are Mahogany, Ebony and Rosewood, all of which are of great commercial value. There are Mangrove Forests in some coastal swamps and deltas. As these forests are dense and gloomy, no large animals can live here. Monkeys, birds, snakes, etc., are the common animals as they can climb to the treetops. Mediterranean Forests and found on the western coast of continents approximately along the 400 North and South latitudes. These regions have a hot, dry summer and mild wet winter. Therefore, the plants found here are those that can protect themselves against loss of moisture in summer. Trees are short with small, leathery leaves and long roots. Some trees like the cork have thick barks and some have spiny leaves. Most of the trees bear fruits that are exported all over the world. Common trees are cork, oak, olive and chestnut. Common animals found here are a variety of goats, red fox, jackal and birds like the spoonbill and endangered golden eagle. The climate and soil of this region is ideal for fruit growing especially citrus fruits. A large number of people are engaged in horticulture. Some wheat is also grown.

Deciduous: The Tropical Deciduous forests occur just north and south of the hot and wet equatorial forests. This region has a distinct dry season; therefore, the trees shed their leaves at the onset of summer or winter. The most valuable trees are the teak and sal, oak and elm. This region has a great variety of animals like the lion, tiger, elephant, bear, and buffalo. There are smaller animals like the fox, a variety of deer, wild ass and monkeys. Most of these areas receive moderate to heavy rainfall, which is seasonal. The climate is favorable for the growing of food crops like rice, wheat and millets in the drier parts. A large number of people are engaged in agriculture and related industries.

Different types of forests India has a diverse range of forests: from the rainforest of Kerala in the south to the alpine pastures of Ladakh in the north, from the deserts of Rajasthan in the west to the evergreen forests in the north-east. Climate, soil type, topography, and elevation are the main factors that determine the type of forest. Forests are classified according to their nature and composition, the type of climate in which they thrive, and its relationship with the surrounding environment. Forests can be divided into six broad types, with a number of sub types.

Moist tropical Wet evergreen Semi-evergreen Moist deciduous Littoral and swamp Dry tropical Dry deciduous Thorn Dry evergreen Sub alpine

Montane sub tropical Broad leaved Pine Dry evergreen

Montane forests Wet Moist Dry Alpine Moist Dry

temperate

Moist tropical forests Wet evergreen

Wet evergreen forests are found in the south along the Western Ghats and the Nicobar and Andaman Islands and all along the north-eastern region. It is characterized by tall, straight evergreen trees that have a buttressed trunk or root on three sides like a tripod that helps to keep a tree upright during a storm. These trees often rise to a great height before they open out like a cauliflower. The more common trees that are found here are the jackfruit, betel nut palm, jamun, mango, and hollock. The trees in this forest form a tier pattern: shrubs cover the layer closer to the ground, followed by the short structured trees and then the tall variety. Beautiful fern of various colours and different varieties of orchids grow on the trunks of the trees. Semi-evergreen Semi-evergreen forests are found in the Western Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Eastern Himalayas. Such forests have a mixture of the wet evergreen trees and the moist deciduous tress. The forest is dense and is filled with a large variety of trees of both types. Moist deciduous Moist deciduous forests are found throughout India except in the western and the north-western regions. The trees have broad trunks, are tall and have branching trunks and roots to hold them firmly to the ground. Some of the taller trees shed their leaves in the dry season. There is a layer of shorter trees and evergreen shrubs in the undergrowth. These forests are dominated by sal and teak, along with mango, bamboo, and rosewood.

Dry tropical forests Dry deciduous forest Dry deciduous forests are found throughout the northern part of the country except in the North-East. It is also found in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. The canopy of the trees does not normally exceed 25 metres. The common trees are the sal, a variety of acacia, and bamboo. Thorn This type is found in areas with black soil: North, West, Central, and South India. The trees do not grow beyond 10 metres. Spurge, caper, and cactus are typical of this region. Dry evergreen Dry evergreens are found along the Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka coast. It has mainly hard-leaved evergreen trees with fragrant flowers, along with a few deciduous trees. Montane sub tropical forests Broad-leaved forests Broad-leaved forests are found in the Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats, along the Silent Valley. There is a marked difference in the form of the vegetation in the two areas. In the Silent Valley, the poonspar, cinnamon, rhododendron, and fragrant grass are predominant. In the Eastern Himalayas, the flora has been badly affected by the shifting cultivation and forest fires. These wet forests consist mainly of evergreen trees with a sprinkling of deciduous here and there. There are oak, alder, chestnut, birch, and cherry trees. There are a large variety of orchids, bamboo and creepers. Pine Pine forests are found in the steep dry slopes of the Shivalik Hills, Western and Central Himalayas, Khasi, Naga, and Manipur Hills. The trees predominantly

found in these areas are the chir, oak, rhododendron, and pine. In the lower regions sal, sandan, amla, and laburnum are found. Dry evergreen Dry evergreen forests normally have a prolonged hot and dry season and a cold winter. It generally has evergreen trees with shining leaves that have a varnished look. Some of the more common ones are the pomegranate, olive, and oleander. These forests are found in the Shivalik Hills and foothills of the Himalayas up to a height of 1000 metres. Montane temperate forests Wet Wet montane temperate forests occur in the North and the South. In the North, it is found in the region to the east of Nepal into Arunachal Pradesh, at a height of 18003000 metres, receiving a minimum rainfall of 2000 mm. In the South, it is found in parts of the Niligiri Hills, the higher reaches of Kerala. The forests in the northern region are denser than in the South. This is because over time the original trees have been replaced by fast-growing varieties such as the eucalyptus. Rhododendrons and a variety of ground flora can be found here. In the North, there are three layers of forests: the higher layer has mainly coniferous, the middle layer has deciduous trees such as the oak and the lowest layer is covered by rhododendron and champa. Moist This type spreads from the Western Himalayas to the Eastern Himalayas. The trees found in the western section are broad-leaved oak, brown oak, walnut, rhododendron, etc. In the Eastern Himalayas, the rainfall is much heavier and therefore the vegetation is also more lush and dense. There are a large variety of broad-leaved trees, ferns, and bamboo. Coniferous trees are also found here, some of the varieties being different from the ones found in the South.

Dry This type is found mainly in Lahul, Kinnaur, Sikkim, and other parts of the Himalayas. There are predominantly coniferous trees that are not too tall, along with broad-leaved trees such as the oak, maple, and ash. At higher elevation, fir, juniper, deodar, and chilgoza can be found.

Sub alpine Sub alpine forests extends from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh between 2900 to 3500 metres. In the Western Himalayas, the vegetation consists mainly of juniper, rhododendron, willow, and black currant. In the eastern parts, red fir, black juniper, birch, and larch are the common trees. Due to heavy rainfall and high humidity the timberline in this part is higher than that in the West. Rhododendron of many species covers the hills in these parts. Alpine Moist Moist alpines are found all along the Himalayas and on the higher hills near the Myanmar border. It has a low scrub, dense evergreen forest, consisting mainly of rhododendron and birch. Mosses and ferns cover the ground in patches. This region receives heavy snowfall. Dry Dry alpines are found from about 3000 metres to about 4900 metres. Dwarf plants predominate, mainly the black juniper, the drooping juniper, honeysuckle, and willow.

EVERGREEN MAINTENANCE Evergreens are a wonderful addition to any garden. They add dramatic colour and texture to landscapes, providing interest in the dead of winter. Evergreens are some of the most versatile plants making them suitable for almost every landscape situation. PRUNING Evergreens can and should be pruned to retain or improve their shape and appearance. This is usually done in late June or early July after the main flush of growth. It is advised never to prune after July 30 . Pruning helps facilitate health growth and a well-shaped form. Although not all evergreens require the same pruning techniques or pruning at all. Spreading Evergreens With pruning shears, cut back the main stem of each branch that requires pruning. This will effectively reduce the overall length of the branch or stem and ultimately increase the fullness of the plant, enhancing its shape. It may be necessary to do this to only a few of the branches of the plant ie: those that are creeping over walks, or too close to other plants and buildings Pyramidal Evergreens Using a pair of hedge shears, cut back about 3 to 6 inches of growth to original shape. DO NOT cut back into wood beyond the needles. They will not branch and produce new growth from mature (old) wood. Other formal, topiary or asymmetrical shaped evergreens can be pruned in the same manner. If topping is necessary to prevent further upward growth, be sure to select the main leader. This minimizes its height, although a new leader will appear down the road. Selection of appropriate eventual heights of pyramidal evergreens should be examined before attempting the task of topping.
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FEEDING: Fertilize yearly with high nitrogen low phosphorous and potassium fertilizer to promote excellent growth and colour. We recommend Plant Products Ever-Acid or Evergreen 30-10-10 fertilizer. Remember: too much can burn the roots or needles, causing damage to your plant. Other feeding methods are using fertilizer stakes (formulated for evergreens), throughout the growing season. These Evergreen Tree Stakes can last up to 60 days. Begin to pound these stakes into well-watered soil around the drip line of the evergreen in early spring. Then repeat again in early summer. It is also advised to fertilize again in late fall once cooler temperatures have stabilized. Using Blood and Bone Meal is an All Natural alternative that has both high nitrogen and phosphorous combinations. Cultivating and adding triple mix, manure, or compost to the soil each spring and/or fall, with your existing soil helps to suspend the fertilizers nutrients as well as providing good aeration to the roots. WATERING Evergreens are quite durable plants and do well when exposed to natural consistent rainfall. However, supplementary watering is important when it comes to drought like conditions; ie: where evergreens are planted under an eaves trough or when dealing with tender cultivars. The main point to remember when watering evergreens is that they are deep rooted, therefore sufficient water should be applied to provide penetration to a depth of 12 - 16. To achieve this let the hose run at the drip line of the plant on a low trickle for a couple of hours. It is best to water thoroughly and deeply once a week instead of every 1 2 days for a short period of time. Fall watering is vital for over wintering. Be sure to water deeply again in late October to early November; weather permitting. When evergreens prepare for dormancy in late fall, they desiccate water from their foliage. Added moisture at the root level compensates for that water loss.

WINTERIZING Depending on the age of the plant, its size and its hardiness, some evergreens require winter protection. There are different methods that can be used to protect your evergreens. Wrapping with burlap or a breathable material prevents drying. The wind will sweep over the material and not let moisture to be drawn directly out of the needles or leaves. Erect a screen around the perimeter of the plant by staking posts outside the drip line, then stapling burlap or a tarp material around it allows for the same amount of protection. This is primarily done on irregular or smaller shaped evergreens. Another winterizing practice is twinning conical shaped conifers. Attach twine to the base of the tree and progressively wrap it around the tree from the bottom to the top, gathering its branches in to tightly secure them to the main stem. This allows snow to fall off the tree and gather in the branches adding weight that could snap the branches off. These practices are time specific. Wrapping too early in the fall can cause damage if the weather is too warm and wrapping too late wont be helpful either. Keep watch of weather patterns and employ these methods when a good succession of frosts have taken place. Once evergreens are well established and begin reaching maturity, these overwintering practices do not have to be strictly employed, for an evergreen is meant to be seen and enjoyed year round in your garden.

Study area Brief description of the physical features The study area is situated in the extreme tip of the Indian peninsula (Fig. 1), south of 10N. It covers the entire coastal zone of Kerala and western ghats reliefs, excluding the dry regions of the Tamil Nadu plains. It represents a total are of more than 25,000 km2 within which 6800 km2 are under forest. The coastal zone, 30 to 50 km wide and 250 km long, constitutes the southern part of Travancore. It consists of numerous low hills (generally lower than 500 m) with rounded peaks. The Ariankavu Pass (160 m alt., towards 9N) separates the area into two parts. A plateau, sloping towards the west constitutes the northern part: the Periyar plateau named after its main river. higher. It forms a ridge framed at the two extremitie by Kottai Malai (2019 m) and Devar Malai (1922 m) and dominating the dry plains of Tamil Nadu by a sheer cliff of more than 1000 m. The SW-NE oriented Varushanad massif is detached from the Kottai Malai region and is continued by the Andipathi (1301 m), which embraces the Kamban valley. together with thePalni Hills (10N-1030N)

Sub Alpine forests These forests extend from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh. Most predominant flora is juniper, rhododendron, willow, black currant, red fir, black juniper, birch, and larch. Alpine forests Alpine can also be categorized into moist and dry.

Moist type of alpine is present along the entire Himalayan region and the higher hills of Myanmar border and the major flora includes low scrub, dense evergreen forest, consisting mainly of rhododendron, birch and mosses and ferns. Dry types of alpine are present at high altitude from 3000 m to 4500 m. Dwarf plants predominate, mainly the black juniper, the drooping juniper, honeysuckle, and willow are the predominant flora of this region.

People of India are exploiting forests and harming the natural habitat of animals. People are deforestation the forests and poaching the animals for their skin and bones. The national forest policy of India, 1952 aimed at bringing one third of landmass of the country under forest cover. But the question is has it been enforced? Doing things at individual level may lead to great efforts in protecting our environment. Now this is the time to wake up and do something to protect us, our future and our earth!

Animals & Plants of the Evergreen Forest

The Animals:

Moose Reindeer Caribou Elk Beaver Squirrel Mountain Hare Bears Wolves Raccoons Raven Owls Eagles

and other large herbivorous mammals, deer species, rodent species, predatory birds, omnivores, and more than 300 species of birds live in the Taiga biome.

The Plants:

Small leaved decicuous trees (birch, poplar, willow, alder) Trees (oak, maple, elm, and tilia) Shrubs and Wildflowers Conifers (Larch, spruce, fir, and pine)

Soil Types in Temperate Deciduous Forests

Temperate deciduous forests cover the eastern third of North America and are also present in China, Japan, Korea and Western Europe. People often marvel at the many different types of trees comprising these forests, such as oaks, maples, hickories, walnuts, beech and sycamores. However, they tend to overlook the soils at the bases of these temperate deciduous trees, which provide the trees with the nutrients necessary for life and growth

Temperate evergreen forests

Temperate evergreen forests, coniferous, broadleaf, and mixed, are found largely in the temperate mid-lattitudes of Montane North America, Siberia, Canada, Australia, Africa and Scandinavia. Broadleaf evergreen forests occur in particular in eastern North America and in countries around the Mediterranean Basin, such as Lebanon and Morocco. Many temperate evergreen forests occur along the eastern margins of major land masses, e.g., in southeastern United States, southern China and in southeastern Brazil. Other examples include the wet temperate and subtropical conifer forests of northwestern North America. Temperate evergreen forests are the regional climax vegetation, commonly dominated by hardy trees that can deal with sandy, rocky, and various other soils of poor quality. Most such communities also are subject to intermittent fire, drought and cold. Coniferous temperate evergreen forests are most frequently dominated by species in the families Pinaceae and Cupressaceae. Broadleaf temperate evergreen forests include those in which Fagaceae such as oaks are common, those in which Nothofagaceae predominate, and the Eucalyptus forests of the Southern Hemisphere. There also are assorted temperate evergreen forests dominated by other families of trees, such as Lauraceae in laurel forest. Evergreen forests around the world are under threat of logging, mining, oil and gas developments, pollution, hydroelectric projects and other human developments planned in these areas.

Trees of Temperate Forests

Temperate forests include a mix of trees that belong to three main groups. Deciduous trees lose their leaves when the days grow shorter and the weather turns cold. The leaves grow back when the weather warms in the spring and the days grow longer. Trees like maples, oaks, chestnuts, beeches, and elms are examples of deciduous trees. Coniferous trees have seeds that develop in cones. These trees usually have needles for leaves. The trees lose the needles gradually so that the tree is never bare. Coniferous trees are also called evergreens, because they are green all the time. Pines, firs, and cedars are examples of coniferous trees. Broad-leaved evergreens grow in temperate forests in warm parts of the world like New Zealand, Australia, southwest South America, and the Mediterranean. These trees have flat, leathery leaves. These trees do not lose their leaves in the winter. The leaves are waxy, which helps keep them from losing too much water in winter when the air is dry. Olive, holly, tea, and eucalyptus trees are all broadleaved evergreens.

Animals like koalas and wallabies are temperate forest species that live in the warmer, broadleaved evergreen forests of Australia.
In Temperate Forests, Litter Is a Good Thing

Fallen leaves create leaf litter. Leaf litter is one of the most important parts of the temperate forest. This is where the forest recycles most of its nutrients. Inside and beneath this leaf litter, thousands of small animals live, including many invertebrates like beetles, millipedes, centipedes, and ants. Unseen microscopic creatures such as fungi and bacteria live there, too. All these organisms help break the leaf litter into nutrients other plants and animals can use.

A Different Look Each Season

Seasons change the look of temperate forests every few months. The four seasons are winter, spring, summer, and fall. Winter - Forests may look rather lifeless during this time, especially if the forest is made up mainly of deciduous trees. Most wildlife hides from the cold or flies far away to warmer places. Many temperate forests are blanketed in snow for much of the winter. Spring Days begin to lengthen and get warmer. Wildlife slowly returns and new leaf and flower buds appear on deciduous trees. Insects hatch and become food for many returning birds and awakening rodents and reptiles. Summer The forest is green and food is plentiful. Woodland animals have babies. The forest is awake and busy during the day and night. Fall As daylight shortens and temperatures fall, deciduous trees reduce the amount of green chlorophyll in their leaves. The leaves turn orange, yellow, red, and brown. Falling leaves create thick leaf litter on the forest floor that will be recycled into the soil. Animals store nuts and other food resources for the winter when there will be very little food.

Temperate forests have four distinct seasons: winter, spring, summer, and fall. Each season has different temperatures and weather patterns.

A Temperate Forest from Top to Bottom

Temperate forests can be divided into three layers: the canopy, understory, and forest floor. Open up the forest below to discover more.

Temperate Forest Creatures

Many of the animal species we know and recognize live in temperate forests. In Australia, koalas, possums, wallabies, wombats, kookaburras, and many small marsupials depend on the forest. In Europe, boars, badgers, squirrels, and songbirds live in temperate forests. In Canada and the United States, deer, bears, mountain lions, bobcats, rabbits, woodpeckers, and many smaller birds make the temperate forest their home. In China, endangered species such as giant pandas and red pandas survive in the temperate forest. Wildlife in temperate forests is not always easy to see. Many species have markings or coloring that camouflages them. Others are nocturnal, that is, they are most active at night. Owls, bats, possums, and many wild cats are nocturnal.

A Food Supply That Comes and Goes

Food supply affects when and where most wildlife is found. In the spring and summer, food is plentiful, and the weather is mild. Most animals have babies during this time of the year. In winter, plants go dormant, insects disappear, and there are no fruits or flowers. Very little food is available during the winter months. For this reason, most wildlife either sleeps in a den or nest or migrates to a warmer place.

Valuable Timber and Rich Soil

Temperate forests are important for people, too. Many trees that people use for timber to make houses, ships, and furniture grow in temperate forests. Trees from temperate forests are also used to make paper and other products. The land beneath these forests is often very rich and good for farming. People have cut many temperate forests to make space for farms.

Natures Cleaning Service

Temperate forests provide people with many more resources than just wood and farmland. Clean air and clean water are direct benefits of a healthy forest. In countries like Australia, protection of temperate forests is critical to maintaining clean water. In areas where the forest has been clear cut, the soil loses it nutrients and may wash away. Over time, few plants can grow anymore and the land looks like a desert.

Acid Rain
In the last 30 years, scientists have discovered that air pollution from factories, coal-burning power plants, cars, and other sources mixes with rain to make acid rain. Over time, acid rain kills trees and other plants.

Conservation of areas of temperate forest can protect many species that call the forest home, like this endangered northern spotted owl.
An Uncertain Future

Conservation of temperate forests is important but difficult to carry out. People often demand that their needs come before those of wildlife and the long-term health of the forests. This approach could mean that in the future the only large areas of temperate forest will be those protected in national parks and sanctuaries.

Conclusion

When the newly developed forest model was used to simulate evapotranspiration, evergreen forests were shown to release a large quantity of water vapor into the atmosphere due to evapotranspiration in the late dry season (fig. 1). These findings led to the conclusion that the trees in an evergreen forest pull water from deep underground and then dispere it into the atmosphere as if they were pums. The most recent observation results obtained under the GAME-Tropical Project, (i.e. seasonal variation in sap flow, which is a guide to seasonal variation in evapotranspiration) were also shown to agree with the model results. These findings demonstrate that an ergreen forest releases large amounts of water vapor into the atmosphere during the late dry season. The results obtained from this research should assist in improving the precision of hydrological cycle predictions in the Asia Monsoon regions, in addition to serving as important reference material toward considering the role performed by forests in affecting water resources.

References
www.ehow.com library.thinkquest.org www.des.ucdavis.edu www.globio.org www.britannica.com