Unit 3 and 6: Laboratory chemistry I and II

Observations and Inferences

Remember that Assessed Practicals should be considered as examinations. You are allowed to take any book or notes into the examination room (with the exception of Planning procedures) but are not permitted to discuss the procedure, observations or inferences with anyone else until the examination is over and your work is completed and handed in. In particular, you should have the following with you: This sheet! Any analysis summary sheets you have been given Inorganic Reactions at Advanced Level (Davies and Kelly) blue/white cover Organic Reactions at Advanced Level (Davies and Kelly) green/white cover All your A-level Chemistry text books

Read the introduction to the task. It will give important information which might make your job easier, e.g. Z is a compound of a group I element with an oxyanion. It may also give instructions which apply to each step in the procedure, e.g. give the reaction type for all chemical reactions which occur. You will be given detailed instructions on the procedure you are to carry out. Read these instructions carefully before doing anything and think what their purpose might be. You will then know what to look for and are less likely to miss key observations. Always carry out instructions precisely as written but do not waste time measuring out 3 reagents (0.5g is about a spatula measure, disposable pipettes are graduated in 1 cm units).

Observations
Before you carry out any procedure try to understand why you are doing it. The reagent might be: An acid or base An oxidising or reducing agent A source of a particular anion or cation (especially if a precipitate is obtained) A source of a ligand (for ligand displacement reactions)

Predict possible outcomes of the procedure and be prepared to make the necessary observations. If the procedure contains multiple instructions, ensure you write down full observations for each stage of the procedure. It might sound obvious, but an observation is something you observe using one or more of your senses. You do not observe a colourless gas given off (though you might observe effervescence in a solution). There may be several marks awarded for a single procedure so write down all observations, in particular: Appearance of reagents solid/liquid/gas/solution, colour (e.g. pale green not just green), crystal/powder, etc. Colour changes note the initial and final colour (N.B. Do not confuse clear and colourless) Effervescence (fizzing), noting the colour of any gas Formation of precipitates; colour and thickness; does it sink or just go cloudy; does it change on standing Temperature changes (exo- or endothermic reactions) Odours (unless specifically instructed not to smell any gases) Phase changes (e.g. melting, condensing, sublimation, dissolving) Sounds effervescence, pops, crackles, etc. Finally, remember that no change or no further change is a valid observation

This may mean that you have to write smaller than usual. If you cannot fit all your observations in the box provided, add a note and continue on the back of the sheet. e.g. To 2 cm of the solution of X, add 5 drops of nitric acid followed by 10 drops of silver nitrate solution. Observations The colourless solution of X remained unchanged on adding the nitric acid. On adding the silver nitrate solution, a yellow precipitate was formed which slowly collected at the bottom of the test tube and turned slightly grey on prolonged standing. e.g. To 0.5g of the solid Y in a test tube, add 2cm of hydrochloric acid and test any gas evolved with lime water. Observations When the HCl came into contact with the white solid there was immediate effervescence and a colourless gas was evolved. When this colourless gas was bubbled through a small quantity of lime water, the colourless solution became cloudy due to the formation of a white precipitate. If you were expecting a particular observation but did not make it, consider one or more of the following: Repeat the procedure (perhaps making up a more concentrated solution) Add slightly more of one or more of the reagents (Bung and) shake the reaction vessel to ensure the contents are well mixed If heating heat more strongly
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Inferences
An inference is a deduction or conclusion. In most cases, at least two inferences should be made from each observation; The identity of the product(s) of the reaction (give names and formulae) Any information this gives about the reagents (and/or the unknown) and possibly The type of reaction which has taken place (e.g. precipitation, redox, acid/base, ligand exchange, etc.) e.g. To 2 cm of the solution of X, add 5 drops of nitric acid followed by 10 drops of silver nitrate solution. Observations The colourless solution of X remained unchanged on adding the nitric acid. On adding the silver nitrate solution, a yellow precipitate was formed which slowly collected at the bottom of the test tube and turned slightly grey on prolonged standing.
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Inferences As there was no effervescence with HNO3, X cannot be a carbonate. The yellow precipitate is probably silver iodide (AgI) so X probably contains the I anion. It is just possible that the ppt is AgBr (which is a cream colour) but sometimes difficult to distinguish from AgI.

e.g. To 0.5g of the solid Y in a test tube, add 2cm of hydrochloric acid and test any gas evolved with lime water. Observations When the HCl came into contact with the white solid there was immediate effervescence and a colourless gas was evolved. When this colourless gas was bubbled through a small quantity of lime water, the colourless solution became cloudy due to the formation of a white precipitate.
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Inferences The gas which turned lime water cloudy is carbon dioxide (CO2). 2Hence, Y must contain carbonate (CO3 ) or hydrogencarbonate (HCO3 ) ions.

e.g. To 2 cm of the solution of Z in a test tube, add 2cm of hydrochloric acid, heat gently and test any gas evolved with filter paper moistened with potassium dichromate(VI). Observations On adding HCl to the colourless solution of Z and heating gently, the solution remained colourless and a pungent colourless gas was evolved which turned the orange potassium dichromate paper green. Inferences The gas which turned the dichromate paper green was 2sulphur dioxide (SO2), due to the reduction of Cr2O7 3+ 2to Cr . Hence, Z must contain sulphite (SO3 ) ions.

Sometimes you may need to combine your inference with a previous one to come to a more specific conclusion. If an inference is inconsistent with a previous inference, you should: Check your chemistry and logic Consider repeating one or more procedures to check your observations

and finally,
be specific with regard to the nature of chemical species, with correct use of the words: ion, anion, cation, molecule, atom, etc. if you are asked to give a formula, give a formula if you are asked to give a name, give a name if you are asked to identify a compound, give both the name and the formula

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