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FM 31-70

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FIELD MANUAL

BASIC
COLD WEATHER
MANUAL

This copy is a reprint which includes


current pages from Change 1.

HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY


APRIL 1968
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FM 31-70
Cl
CHANGE HEADQUARTERS
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
No. 1 WASHINGTON , D.C., /7 December /968
BASIC COLD WEATHER MANUAL
FM 31-70, 12 April 1968, is changed as follows: mately 15° F to –15° F). The term moderately
Page 53, paragraph 3-51 b, In line 16 “(LOW)” is cold is used only as a descriptive term. What is
changed to read “(LAW or Lubricant, Semi- termed as moderately cold to one person, may be
Fluid, MIL--L--46000A(LSA)).” extremely cold to another. The windchill factor
Page 165, paragraph D-2 a. In line 10 “(LOW)” must also be considered, a moderate cold could
is changed to read “(LAW or Lubricant, Semi- change momentarily to extreme cold by the addi-
Fluid, MIL-L-46000A(LSA)).” tion of high winds. Therefore, the commander
Page 166, paragraph D-3a (2). In line 21 “LOW” should use the type loads for planning only and
is changed to read "LAW or Lubricant, Semi- should adjust them accordingly to fit a given situa-
Fluid, MIL-L-46000A(LSA).”
Page 166, paragraph D-3 a (3), In lines 3 & 4 tion and temperature condition.
wwtsia

-
“LOW” is changed to read “LAW or Lubricant,
Semi-Fluid, MIL-L-46000A(LSA).”
Page 166, paragraph D-3 b (4). In line 7 “LOW” is J{GJIUGCb IA\73116L 9 00
changed to read “LAW or Lubricant, Semi- flhJqGLeJflLç' 2o\2o 0' s
DLWJLGL2' 20\20 0' 20
Fluid, MIL--L-46000A(LSA).” 2OC' C"2J'1°" OJG 0' 10
Page 170, paragraph E–2 a. In line 14 “Cap, Cold nabGnqGL 0' 32
Weather” is changed to read “Cap, Insulting, 1L0112GL21 conou y4?.JWJ ThU 3' 10
Helmet Liner-Helmet.” 2P!L1' 11s001 L4AIOIJ 00 120
Page 171, paragraph E 2c. Entire page 171 is c° ccc" jOu m1 9' So
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E-3. Type Load WJ cdenbwnç io' 23
The loads shown below are type loads which could
be worn during moderately cold weather (approxi-

TAGO 649A—December 340-470 c63—68


1
c. Supplemental Existance Load. The following
0 10 are items of clothing not immediately needed by

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0• 12 the individual during moderately cold weather.
o. o These items are normally carried in the duffle bag

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the individual when needed:
0.
Undershirt, 50/50
Io1vl J,!RpUR o1q. ' 02 Drawers, 50/50
Socks, Cushion Sole (3 pr)
to3;. Trousers, Cotton Nylon, WR
HncJtrcc' AIo1J D'1 OC-- - 2' 00 Shirt, Wool Nylon, OG
LOnoRJe (OUJ mc O. mrctcpoqio Parka, Cotton Nylon
po Luicjmicjc: Liner, Parka, Nylon Quilted
D1J 2IcGbw (QnL) - . 00
B' J0c!!JJ (InvoL)
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Mitten Set, Arctic
- Page 184, paragraph G-6a. In line 1 “(LOW)” is
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By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

W. C. WESTMORELAND,
General, United States Army,
Official: Chief Of Staff.
KENNETH G. WICKHAM,
Major General, United States Army,
The Adjutant General.

Distribution:
To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-11 requirements for Basic Cold Weather Manual.

TAGO 649A
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1-1. Purpose and Scope These include, among others, erecting and
a. This manual is designed to prepare the striking tents, performing maintenance, con-
individual soldier and small unit commander structing roads, starting and warming engines,
to conduct military operations for extended movement of supplies, and hundreds of other
periods of time under the most severe and small tasks that must be performed while
varying cold weather climatic conditions. The wearing bulky cold weather clothing.
doctrine and techniques in the manual are e. Insofar as possible illustrations used in
applicable in any area that has cold weather this manual reflect Standard A items of cloth-
and snow with their accompanying opera- ing and equipment. However, because of non-
tional problems. Troops properly trained in availability of some items at time of publica-
this doctrine and these techniques will be able tion, some illustrations show Standard B or C
to fight; live; and move in any cold weather items of clothing (para 2-7).
area of the world. f. Measurements in this manual to the ex-
b. The provisions of SOLOG Agreement 23R, tent practicable, reflect both the Metric and
Arctic Doctrine are implemented in this U.S. systems; however, in some cases figures
manual. will show only the U.S. system. For ease in
transposition, meters have been converted to
c. The material contained herein empha- yards on a one for one basis. For more exact
sizes that cold, with its attendant problems measurements use the conversions shown in
affects military operations but does not pre- appendix H.
vent them. The proper use of authorized equip-
ment and field expedients will, to a major g. Users of this manual are encouraged to
degree, overcome any problems encountered as submit recommendations to improve its clarity
a result of the cold. It is the commander’s or accuracy, Comments should be keyed to the
responsibility to train his men so they can specific page, paragraph, and line of the text
make the environment save military opera- in which the change is recommended. Reasons
tions, not hinder them. The material presented should be provided for each comment to insure
herein is applicable, without modification to understanding and complete evaluation. Com-
nuclear and nonnuclear warfare, employment ments should be forwarded direct to Com-
of, and protection from, chemical, biological, manding General, United States Army, Alaska,
and radiological agents, and internal defense APO Seattle 98749. Originators of proposed
and development operations. changes which would constitute a significant
modification of approved Army doctrine may
d. Throughout this manual reference is send an information copy, through command
made to the additional time required to con- channels, to the Commanding General, United
duct various tasks in cold weather operations. States Army Combat Developments Command,
This requirement cannot be overemphasized Fort Belvoir, Virginia 22060, to facilitate re-
and must be included in all planning. In addi- view and followup.
tion to the increased amount of time con-
sumed in actual movement, allowance must be 1-2. Relation to Other Manuals
made for other time consuming tasks that are This manual is prepared with the assump-
not present in temperate zone operations. tion that normal individual and basic unit
AGO 8641A 3
training have been completed. The manual beyond the treatment given in this manual on
should be used in conjunction with the basic the operation and maintenance of equipment
field manuals of the arms and services as well during cold weather operations. Appendix A
as FM 31-71and FM 3l-72. Appropriate tech- contains a list of supplementary manuals and
nical manuals contain detailed information references.

4 AGO 8641A
CHAPTER 2
INDIVIDUAL CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT

Section 1. GENERAL
2-1. Basis of Issue mal winter conditions, 65 to 70 pounds is the
a. As used in this manual, individual cloth- maximum weight a man can normally wear
ing and equipment are those items issued or and carry and still be effective on reaching his
sold to a soldier for his personal use, and in- destination.
clude certain organizational equipment utilized b. The weight of individual clothing and
by the individual. The basis of issue of cold equipment is covered in appendix E. Com-
weather clothing and equipment may be found manders should give particular attention to
in TA 50-901. Mandatory items of personal additional organizational equipment required
clothing are listed in AR 700–8400–1. for a given operation. Some of the more com-
b. The U.S. Army, through continuous re- mon items are also listed in appendix E. Since
search and development, endeavors to main- the individual soldier’s combat load in cold
tain the best clothing and equipment in the weather operations exceeds that of a temperate
world. When properly fitted and properly util- climate load by more than 20 pounds, these
ized this clothing will provide adequate pro- organizational items (such as binoculars, com-
tection from the elements and will enable passes, radios and batteries, pioneer tools, crew
trained, well disciplined troops to carry out served weapons, etc. ) become major consider-
year-round field operations under cold weather ations and must be included at all levels of
conditions, wherever they may be encountered. planning.
c. To utilize fully the protection afforded by c. In addition to the individual combat load,
the present standard cold weather clothing and another 45 to 55 pounds of clothing and equip-
equipment, it is necessary to understand the ment is required for the protection and com-
principle involved and the correct function of fort of each individual under conditions of ex-
each item. This chapter covers basic principles treme cold. Transportation must be provided
and provides general guidance on the purpose for this additional load whenever possible.
and use of cold weather clothing and equip- d. The commander must take positive action
ment. to insure that a balance exists between what
the individual is wearing and what he is
2-2. Commander's Responsibilities required to carry in the way of equipment. He
a. Many factors will influence the command- must also insure that troops dress as lightly
er’s decision as to what items of clothing and as possible consistent with the weather in
equipment his troops should wear or carry. order to reduce the danger of excessive per-
These include the weather, mission at hand, spiring and subsequent chilling. The complete
actual duties to be performed, overall physical cold-wet or cold-dry uniform for the applica-
condition of individuals and their degree of ble environmental conditions must be readily
proficiency. If a movement is involved he must available. A large proportion. of cold weather
consider the distance to be traveled, the casualties results from too few clothes being
method of travel, and how the troops will be available to individuals when a severe change
fed en route, if applicable. If the movement is in the weather occurs. Because of the differ-
on foot, he must bear in mind that under nor- ences in individual metabolism, commanders
AGO 8641A 5
must not be arbitrary in delineating strict muddy and slushy. During these periods troops
uniform requirements, but must allow some should wear clothing which consists of a
personal choice of undergarments. water-repellent, wind-resistant outer layer and
inner layers with sufficient insulation to pro-
2-3. Cold Weather Conditions vide ample protection in moderately cold
The use of cold weather clothing is affected weather (above 14°F.).
by two types of weather conditions: wet and b. Dry Conditions. Cold-dry conditions occur
dry. These conditions are amplified by humid- when average temperatures are lower than
ity coupled with temperature and wind veloc- 14°F. The ground is usually frozen and snow
ity; high humidity (wet conditions), low is usually dry, in the form of fine crystals.
humidity (dry conditions). Strong winds cause low temperatures to seem
a. Wet Conditions. Cold-wet conditions occur colder and increase the need for protection of
when temperatures are near freezing and vari- the entire body (windchill) (fig. F-1). During
ations in day and night temperatures cause these periods, troops should have available
alternate freezing and thawing. This freezing additional insulating layers of clothing. This is
and thawing is often accompanied by rain and particularly true when entering static situa-
wet snow, causing the ground to become tions form a period of strenuous exercise.

Section II. CLOTHING


2-4. Purpose of Clothing When heat loss exceeds heat production, the
a. Protection of Body Against Climatic body uses up the heat stored in its tissues, caus-
Factors. ing a rapid drop in body temperature. Exces-
(1) If the body is to operate efficiently, it sive heat loss can result in shivering. Shivering
must maintain a normal temperature. uses body energy to produce heat which at
The body attempts to adjust itself to least partially offsets the heat loss and slows
the variable external conditions it the rate at which the body temperature will
encounters. These attempts are evi- drop. Shivering is an important warning to
denced by the need for more food to start action to rewarm, either by adding more
produce additional heat during colder clothing, by exercising, by eating some food,
weather, by perspiration to increase or by entering a warm shelter, or by any
removal of heat during hot weather, combination of these actions. In freezing
and by the gradual darkening of the temperatures it is as important to remove and
skin as protection against extended adjust clothing to prevent excessive overheat-
exposure to the rays of the sun. ing as it is to add clothing to prevent heat
(2) Proper clothing, correctly worn, will loss.
assist the body in its adjustment to
extreme climatic conditions. The 2-5. Principles of Clothing Design
clothing does this by holding in the Certain principles are involved in the design
body heat, thereby insulating the of adequate cold weather clothing to control
body against the cold outside air. The the loss of heat from the body, to facilitate
problem of protection becomes acute proper ventilation, and to protect the body.
when freezing temperatures are in- a. Insulation. Any material that resists the
volved. To understand this problem transmittance of heat is known as an insulating
requires a knowledge of the methods material. Dry air is an excellent insulator.
by which the body resists the effects Woolen cloth contains thousands of tiny pock-
of climatic changes. ets within its fibers. These air pockets trap the
b. Balancing Heat Production and Heat Loss. air warmed by the body and hold it close to the
The body loses heat at variable rates. This heat skin. The principle of trapping air within the
may flow from the body at a rate equal to or fibers or layers of clothing provides the most
greater than the rate at which it is produced. efficient method of insulating the body against
6 AGO 8641A
heat loss. Fur provides warmth in the same air. If this gives too much ventilation, only the
way; warm, still air is trapped in the hair and neck of the garment should be opened to allow
is kept close to the body. warm air to escape without permitting com-
b. Layer Principle. plete circulation.
(1) Several layers of medium-weight 2-6. Winter Use of Clothing
clothing provide more warmth than a. Basic Principles of Keeping Warm.
one heavy garment, even if the single (1) Keep clothing Clean.
heavy garment is as thick as the (2)Avoid Overheating.
combined layers. The effect results (3)Wear Clothing Loose and in layers.
from the several thick layers of air (4) Keep clothing Dry
which are trapped between the layers (5) Remember C-O-L-D to keep warm
in winter.
of clothing, rather than one or two
layers of large volume. These layers, b. Application of Basic Principles.
as well as the minute air pockets
within the fibers, are warmed by the
body heat. (1) Keep clothing clean. This is always
(2) The layers of clothing are of different true from a standpoint of sanitation
design. The winter underwear is most and comfort: in winter, in addition
porous and has many air pockets. to these considerations, it is neces-
These air pockets trap and hold the sary for maximum warmth. If clothes
air warmed by the body. To keep the are matted with dirt and grease,
cold outside air from reaching the much of their insulation property is
still inside air that has been warmed destroyed; the air pockets in the
by the body, the outer garments are clothes are crushed or filled up and
made of windproof, water-repellent the heat can escape from the body
fabric. more readily. Underwear requires the
(3) The layer principle allows maximum closest attention because it will be-
freedom of action and permits rapid come soiled sooner. If available, light
adjustment of clothing through a cotton underwear may be worn be-
wide range of temperatures and ac- neath winter underwear to absorb
tivities. The addition or removal of body oils and lengthen the time inter-
layers of clothing allows the body to val between necessary washings of
maintain proper body heat balance. these more difficult to clean and dry
c. Ventilation. Perspiration fills the air- garments. Winter underwear (Army
spaces of the clothing with moisture laden air issue is a 50/50 cotton/wool blend)
and reduces their insulating qualities. As per- and cushion sole socks (Army issue
spiration evaporates, it cools the body just as socks are 50 percent wool, 30 percent
water evaporating from a wet canteen cover nylon, 20 percent cotton) should be
cools the water in the canteen. To combat these washed in lukewarm water, if avail-
effects, cold weather clothing is designed so able. Hot water should not be used
that the neck, waist, hip, sleeve, and ankle because it is injurious to the wool
fastenings can be opened or closed to provide fibers and causes shrinkage. Syn-
ventilation. To control the amount of circula- thetic detergents are more soluble
tion, the body should be regarded as a house than soap in cool water and also pre-
and the openings in the clothing as windows vent hard-water scum, and are there-
of the house. Cool air enters next to the body fore recommended, if available. When
through the openings in the clothing just as outer clothing gets dirty it should be
cool air comes into a house when the windows washed with soap and water. All the
are open. If the windows are opened at opposite soap or detergent must be rinsed out
ends of a room, cross-draft ventilation results. of the clothes, since any left in the
In the same way, if clothing is opened at the clothing will lessen the water-shed-
waist and neck, there is a circulation of fresh ding quality of the clothing. In addi-
tion to destroying much of the nor-
AGO 8641A
7
mal insulation, grease will make the trapped air layers and thereby reduce
clothing more flammable. All outer the insulation and ventilation avail-
garments of the Cold Weather Cloth- able.
ing System are washable and have (4) Keep clothing dry.
laundry instruction labels attached. (a) Under winter conditions, moisture
If washing is not possible for clothing will soak into clothing from two
that would normally be washed with directions-inside and outside. Dry
soap and water, dry rubbing and snow and frost that collect on the
airing will rid them of some dirt and uniform will be melted by the heat
accumulated body oils. radiated by the body.
(2) Avoid overheating. In cold climates, (b) Outer clothing is water-repellent
overheating should be avoided when- and will shed most of the water
ever possible. Overheating causes collected from melting snow and
perspiration which in turn, causes frost. The surest way to keep dry,
clothing to become damp. This damp- however, is to prevent snow from
ness will lessen the insulating quality collecting. Before entering heated
of the clothing. In addition, as the shelters, snow should be brushed
perspiration evaporates it will cool or shaken from uniforms; it should
the body even more. When indoors, a not be rubbed off, because this will
minimum of clothing should be worn work it into the fabric.
and the shelter should not be over- (c) In spite of all precautions, there
heated. Outdoors, if the temperature will be times when getting wet can-
rises suddenly or if hard work is be- not be prevented and the drying of
ing performed, clothing should be clothing may become a major prob-
adjusted accordingly. This can be lem. On the march, damp mittens
done by ventilating (by partially and socks may be hung on the pack.
opening parka or jacket) or by re- Occasionally in freezing tempera-
moving an inner layer of clothing, or tures, wind and sun will help dry
by removing heavy mittens or by this clothing. Damp socks or mit-
throwing back parka hood or chang- tens may be placed, unfolded near
ing to lighter head cover. The head the body, where the body heat will
and hands, being richly supplied with dry them. In bivouac, damp cloth-
blood, act as efficient heat dissipators ing may be hung inside the tent
when overheated. In cold temperature near the top, using drying lines or
it is better to be slightly chilly than improvised drying racks. It may
to be excessively warm. This pro- even by necessary to dry each item,
motes maximum effectiveness of the piece by piece, by holding before
body heat production processes. an open fire. Clothing and footwear
(3) Wear clothing loose and in layers. should not be dried to near a heat
Clothing and footgear that are too source. Leather articles, especially
tight restrict blood circulation and boots, must be dried slowly. If boots
invite cold injury. Wearing of more cannot be dried by any other meth-
socks than is correct for the type of od, it is recommended that they be
footgear being worn might cause the placed between the sleeping bag
boot to fit too tightly. Similarly, a and liner. Heat from the body will
field jacket which fits snugly over a aid in drying the leather.
wool shirt would be too tight when
a liner is also worn under the jacket. 2-7. Components of Cold Weather Uniforms
If the outer garment fits tightly, The items of clothing below are Standard A
putting additional layers under it will as listed in SB 700-20. It should be borne in
restrict circulation. Additionally, mind however that procurement may or may
tight garments lessen the volume of not have been started on some of the items
8 AGO 8641A
V
IC

II
H •1i'
Figure 2–1. Basic components of cold-wet uniform.
and upon requisitioning some Standard B (12) Glove Shells. Leather Black with
clothing may be issued. Although not shown as Glove Inserts; Wool and Nylon Knit,
basic items of the cold weather uniforms, light OG 208, or Mitten Shells; Trigger
cotton underwear may be worn under the Finger Leather Palm and Thumb
winter underwear (para 2-6 b (l)). with Mitten Inserts; Wool and Nylon
a. Cold-Wet Uniform. The basic components Knit, OG, Trigger Finger, or Mitten
of the cold-wet uniform are illustrated in fig- Set Arctic; Gauntlet Style Shell with
ure 2-1 unless otherwise indicated. Leather Palm (fig. 2-5).
(1) Undershirt Mans. 50 Cotton 50 Wool, (13) Hood Winter. Cotton and Nylon Ox-
Full Sleeve. ford, OG 107, with drawcord and fur.
(2) Drawers Mens. 50 Cotton 50 Wool, (14) Poncho. Coated Nylon Twill, OG 207
Ankle Length. (not illustrated).
(3) Socks Mens. Wool Cushion Sole, OG b. Cold-Dry Uniform. The basic components
408, Stretch Type. of the cold-dry uniform are illustrated in fig-
(4) Suspenders Trousers. Scissors Back ure 2-2 unless otherwise indicated.
Type. (1) Undershirt Mens. 50 Cotton 50 Wool,
(5) Trousers Mens. Wool Serge, OG 108. Full Sleeve.
(6) Shirt Mans. Wool Nylon Flannel, OG (2) Drawers Mens. 50 Cotton 50 Wool,
108. Ankle Length.
(7) Trousers Mens. Cotton Nylon, Wind (3) Socks Mens. Wool Cushion Sole, OG
Resistant Sateen, 8.5 oz, OG 107. 408, Stretch Type.
(8) Boot Insulated Cold Weather. Mens (4) Suspenders Trousers. Scissors Back
Rubber Black (or Boot Combat: Type.
Mens Leather Black 8½" high with (5) Shirt Mans. Wool Nylon Flannel, OG
Overshoe: Rubber Man’s High 108.
Cleated 5 Buckle). (6) Trousers Mens. Cotton Nylon, Wind
(9) Coat Man. Cotton and Nylon Wind Resistant Sateen, 8.5 oz, OG 107.
Resistant Sateen, 8.5 oz, OG 107, (7) Liner Trousers. Nylon Quilted, 6.2 oz,
with integral hood. OG 106.
(10) Liner Coat Mens. Nylon Quilted 6.2 (8) Boot Insulated Cold Weather. Mens
oz, OG 106. Rubber White, w/release valve.
(11) Cap Insulating, Helmet Liner-Helmet. (9) Coat Man. Cotton and Nylon Wind
Cotton Nylon Oxford, OG 107. Resistant Sateen, 8.5 oz, OG 107.
AGO 8641A 9
J

Figure 2-2. Basic components of cold-dry uniform.


(10) Liner Coat Mans. Nylon Quilted, 6.2 constructed so that circulation and
oz, OG 106. ventilation are not restricted.
(11) Parka Mans. Cotton and Nylon Oxford (b) Suspenders. The scissors-type sus-
OG 107, w/o hood (not illustrated), penders are worn over the under-
(12) Liner Parka Mans. Nylon Quilted, 6.2 shirt. The drawers and all succeed-
oz, OG 106 (not illustrated). ing layers of trousers are supported
(13) Cap, Insulating, Helmet Liner. Cot- by the suspenders. The use of sus-
ton Nylon Oxford, OG 107. penders allows the drawers and
(14) Hood Winter. Cotton and Nylon Ox- trousers to be worn loose at the
ford, OG 107, w/drawcord and fur. waist so that neither circulation
(15) Glove Shells. Leather Black with nor ventilation is restricted.
Glove Inserts; Wool and Nylon Knit, (2) Intermediate layer. The intermediate
OG 108, or, Mitten Shells; Trigger layer consists of the wool OG shirt
Finger Leather Palm and Thumb and trousers which provide excellent
with Mitten Inserts; Wool and Nylon insulation against the cold. The shirt
Knit, OG, Trigger Finger, or, Mitten is worn outside the trousers for bet-
Set Arctic; Gauntlet Style Shell with ter control of ventilation. The wool
Leather Palm (fig. 2-5). trousers and shirt are not designed
(16) Poncho. Coated Nylon Twill, OG 207 to be worn as outer garments under
(not illustrated). field conditions since they lose their
(17) Gloves Cloth. Work Type (not illus- insulating qualities if they become
trated). wet or matted with dirt. When en-
gaged in strenuous activity, care must
2-8. Description and Wearing of the be taken so that the wool material
Uniform Components will not come in contact with the
a. Cold-Wet. skin, thus causing possible irritation
(1) Inner layer. and discomfort.
(a) Underwear. The underwear is loose (3) Outer layer.
fitting and is made of 50 percent (a) Coat. The coat ensemble is made up
cotton and 50 percent wool. It is of a shell and a detachable liner.
10 AGO 8641A
Figure 2-3. Cap insulatng helmet and helmet liner.
The coat has a combination slide, around the top with the touch-and-
snap and touch-and-close fastener close fasteners crisscrossed in the
front closure. The sleeves have ad- front (fig. 2-3).
justable cuffs with a hand shield (b) Hoods. The winter hood (fig. 2-4)
extension. A lightweight hood is an is a one-piece covering for the
integral part of the coat. When not head, face, and neck. It utilizes
being used the hood is secured un- touch-and-close fasteners and can
der the collar and is concealed by be worn over the steel helmet. A
a slide fastened enclosure. The malleable wire inside the fur ruff
detachable liner is made of quilted may be shaped as desired for visi-
nylon and is extremely light and bility or greater protection of the
warm. The liner has a collar, open head and face. Unit commanders
underarms, and buttonhole tabs for must enforce “hood discipline,” es-
attachment to the coat. pecially while men are on sentry
(b) Trousers. The trousers are made of duty or on patrols. The winter
smooth, light, wind resistant sa- hood and the cold weather cap
teen. They have extra closures and with flaps down will greatly reduce
adjustments. to provide for ventila- a man’s hearing capabilities. When
tion and better fit. the temperature or wind does not.
(4) Headgear. require the use of heavier head-
(a) Cap. The insulating helmet liner gear, the cold weather cap and the
cap (fig. 2-3) is close fitting, lightweight hood should be worn.
visorless, and of helmet style. It has Hoods should be removed before
a combined one-piece earlap and the head starts to perspire. Breath-
neck protector, and utilizes an ing into the winter hood causes
overlap touch-and-close fastener. moisture and frost to accumulate
The cap is designed to be worn un- and should be avoided as much as
der the steel helmet or under the possible. Accumulated frost should
winter hood. When worn as an be removed frequently.
outer headpiece, the lower flap por- (5) Handwear. See c below.
tion of the cap may be folded up (6) Footwear. See d below.

AGO 8641A 11
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b. Cold-Dry.
(1) Inner Layer. Same as cold-wet.
(2) Intermediate Layer. The wool OG
shirt is worn as the basic upper body
garment. The wind resistant sateen
trousers with the quilted nylon liner
are worn as the basic lower body gar-
ment. In extreme cold weather, the

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coat with detachable liner, used as


an outer layer in the cold-wet uni-
form, may be worn as an inter-
mediate layer in cold-dry conditions.
(8) Outer Layer. Depending on tempera-
I li00J 6Ø}J6L GJJ ture the outer garment may consist
of the coat with detachable liner, the
Ut• parka, with detachable liner, or both,

12 AGO 8641A
The parka is a three-quarter length, ener on the back. A neck strap is
unlined coat with adjustable cuffs. attached to both mittens to prevent
It has a combination slide and snap loss. The neck strap permits the
fastener front fly closure, waist and mittens, when not required for
hem drawcords and a split lower warmth, to be conveniently carried
back. The parka has a detachable snapped together behind the back.
quilted nylon liner. The arctic mitten set is carried
(4) Headgear. Same as cold-wet. whenever there is the possibility of
(5) Handwear. See c below. the onset of severe cold weather,
(6) Footwear. See d below. regardless of the mildness of the
c. Handwear. weather when setting out.
(1) Gloves. (3) Utilization.
(a) Standard black leather gloves are (a) The general rules concerning the
worn in mild weather or when use of clothing apply also to hand-
work must be done that requires wear—keep it clean, avoid over-
more freedom of finger movement heating, wear loose in layers, and
than can be acquired with heavier keep it dry.
handwear. In colder weather the (b) The outer shells should always be
same gloves are worn with wool in- worn with the minimum insulation
serts (fig. 2-5). Gloves may be necessary to provide protection,
worn with either the cold-wet or thus avoiding perspiration. Inserts
cold-dry uniforms when the should never be worn by themselves
weather is not cold enough to re- because they wear out quickly and
quire the use of mittens. provide little warmth alone. Trig-
(b) Personnel engaged in delicate fin- ger finger inserts are designed to
ger operations, such as instrument fit either hand. Changing them to
adjustment may be issued light- opposite hands frequently will in-
weight cotton work gloves. These sure even wear.
gloves allow for finger dexterity, (c) Tight fitting sleeves should be
have leather palms, and prevent avoided. They may cut down cir-
the skin from sticking to cold culation and cause hands to be-
metal. They will provide protection come cold.
against cold for only a very short (d) When handling cold metals, the
period. hands should be covered to prevent
(2) Mittens. cold burns (immediate freezing of
(a) The trigger finger mitten shells the flesh in contact with cold
(fig. 2-5), are worn with wool trig- soaked metals).
ger finger inserts during periods of (e) To keep hands warm when wear-
moderate cold. The mittens may be ing mittens, the fingers should be
worn with either the cold-wet or curled (inside the mittens) against
cold-dry uniform. Figure 2-5 the palm of the hand, thumb under-
shows the Standard B mitten. The neath the fingers, or flexed inside
Standard A item, although identi- the mitten whenever possible to in-
cal in outward appearance has had crease the blood circulation. Hands
the trigger finger loop deleted and may be exercised by swinging the
is lined on the inside upper surface arms in a vertical circle. Frost-
with lightweight quilted nylon. bitten hands can be warmed by
(b) During periods of extreme cold the placing them next to the skin un-
arctic mitten set is worn (fig. 2-5). der the armpits.
The mitten has a liner, a leather (f) An extra pair of mitten inserts
palm, a cheek warmer and a fast- should be carried.
AGO 8641A 13
d. Footwear. boots all require muscular action,
(1) General. The feet are more vulner- produces heat, and will help keep
able to cold than are other parts of the feet warm. The feet should be
the body. Cold attacks feet most often massaged when changing the
because they get wet easily (both ex- socks.
ternally and from perspiration) and (e) Boots are designed to permit at-
because circulation is easily re- tachment to individual oversnow
stricted. Footgear is therefore one of equipment (skis and snowshoes).
the most important parts of cold BINDINGS MUST BE AD-
weather clothing. JUSTED CAREFULLY. If they
(2) Principles. are too tight, the circulation of
(a) The rule of wearing clothing loose blood is restricted and feet will get
and in layers also applies to foot- cold. Improperly adjusted bindings
gear. The layers are made up by may soon chafe feet or badly wear
the boot itself and by the socks. and tear the boot.
Socks are worn in graduated sizes.
The instructions pertaining to fit- (3) T ypes.
ting of footgear, as outlined in TM (a) Boot, insulated, cold weather:
10-228, must be carefully adhered mens, rubber, black. These boots
to. If blood circulation is re- (l, fig. 2-6) are particularly useful
stricted, the feet will be cold. in snow, slush, mud, and water
Socks, worn too tightly, might (cold-wet conditions), but are not
easily mean freezing of the feet. adequate for prolonged wear in
For the same reason: AVOID temperatures below –20° F. They
LACING FOOTGEAR TIGHTLY. are specifically designed for com-
(b) Since the feet perspire more read- bat personnel who may not have
ily than any other part of the body, the opportunity to frequently
the rules about avoiding overheat- change to dry socks. Insulating
ing and keeping dry are difficult to material is hermetically sealed into
follow. Footgear is subjected to be- the sides and bottoms of the boots.
coming wet more often than are The insulation takes the place of
other items of equipment. The in- removable innersoles and the sec-
sulated boots with release valve ondary layer of socks worn in other
(white, cold-dry and black, cold- types of cold weather boots. Pers-
wet) are designed to contain pers- piration from the feet and water
piration within the interior of the spilling over the tops of the boots
boots. A change of dry socks should cannot reach the insulating mater-
be carried at all times. Whenever ial because it is sealed-in and al-
the feet get wet, dry as soon as ways remains dry. Moisture from
possible and put on a pair of dry outside sources or from perspira-
socks. Also, the inside of the boots tion may make the socks damp;
should be wiped as dry as possible. this dampness is not harmful to
(c) Footgear should be kept clean. the feet, provided they receive
Socks should be changed when they proper care such as frequent dry-
become dirty. Socks and feet should ing and massaging. If socks are not
be washed frequently. This washing changed and feet dried regularly
will help keep feet and socks in (at least twice daily) the skin be-
good condition. comes softened and is more readily
(d) The feet should be exercised. chaffed or blistered. These effects
Stamping the feet, double-timings are occasionally mistaken for su-
few steps back and forth, and flex- perficial frostbite. Only one pair of
ing and wiggling toes inside the cushion-sole socks are worn with
14 AGO 8641A
p.
1

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the boots. Additional socks should for use during severe windchill conditions. The
not be worn as the feet may become mask must be removed at intervals to check
cramped, resulting in restricted for frostbite.
blood circulation and cold feet. b. A certain amount of protection can be
(b) Boot, insulated, cold weather: gained by covering as much of the face as
mens, rubber, white, w/release possible with a wool scarf. It may be adjusted
valve. The insulated white boot (2, from time to time, and should be rotated when
fig. 2–6 ) is designed for wear in the section opposite the mouth and nose be-
cold-dry conditions and will pro- comes covered with frost. The frozen end
tect the feet in temperatures as low should be left outside the coat or parka. The
as –60° F. The boots have a seam- scarf, like the mask, must be removed at in-
less inner and outer carcass, sealed tervals to check for frostbite.
insulation, and an outside air re-
lease valve used to compensate for 2-10. Camouflage Clothing
air differentials. The white boots a. Winter camouflage clothing (overwhites)
are worn over one pair of cushion consists of white trousers and lightweight
sole socks. The air release valve parka with hood. White covers are also issued
provides airborne troops a means for the rucksacks.
of equalizing external and internal
air pressures when undergoing ex- b. Camouflage clothing provides a means of
treme changes in altitude. This concealment and camouflage from the enemy
valve must remain closed at all —both from the ground and from the air-
other times to prevent the possi- in winter conditions. Use of the white cam-
bility of introducing any amount ouflage clothing is, however, dependent on the
of moisture into the insulation of background; generally speaking, on vegetation
the boot and rendering it perma- and the amount of snow on the ground. The
nently unserviceable. complete white suit (fig. 6-26) is worn when
terrain is covered with snow. Mixed clothing
2-9. Nose and Cheek Protectors and Masks (fig. 6-27 )—white parka and dark trousers,
a. The Mask, Cold Weather may be issued or vice versa—is used against mottled back
AGO 8641A 15
grounds. The correct use of camouflage cloth- turned in for replacement as soon as
ing is extremely important (para 6-22). possible. The inside of the boots
c. Overwhites may become frosty and icy should be washed at least once a
after use. As with all clothing, the frost and month with a mild soap, and rinsed
ice must be removed to expedite drying. Soiled with warm water.
camouflage clothing will lose its effectiveness; Caution: Do not clean with abra-
therefore, care must be exercised when han- sive materials. Also do not apply
dling stoves, digging in ground, and perform- polish or paint to any part of the boot
ing similar tasks. Avoid scorching or burning as it will result in deterioration of
the garments when drying or when lying down the rubber.
by an open fire. The clothing should be washed (2) Socks. Socks should be washed daily,
or changed frequently. When changing, cloth- using lukewarm water to avoid ex-
ing should be checked to insure that it fits cessive shrinkage. After washing,
over the basic garments without restricting they should be wrung out and
movement. stretched to natural shape before
drying. Holes in socks should be re-
2-11. Maintenance of Clothing and paired as soon as possible, taking
Equipment special precautions to avoid bunching
a. Footgear. or roughness of the mended area. It
(1) Boots. The leather in boots should be should be noted that proper repairs
treated with approved agents. Nor- under field conditions are almost im-
mally, the insulated boot can be re- possible and that blisters should be
paired with ordinary tire patching or expected if field mended socks are
air mattress patching material. If worn.
these items are not readily available, b. Handgear. Holes should be mended
friction tape or even chewing gum promptly. Gloves or mittens should not be
may be used temporarily to plug up dried too near an open fire.
the hole and prevent moisture from c. Headgear. Headgear should be washed as
damaging the insulation. If the dam- required to remove perspiration, dirt, and hair
age cannot be repaired, the boots oils. When drying, normal care must be exer-
should be removed, airdried, and cised to avoid scorching or burning.

SECTION III. EQUIPMENT

2-12. Sleeping Equipment the foot with the loops and tie straps provided
a. The complete sleeping bag for use in cold and the cover laced over the outer bag.
climates consists of three parts: a case, of c. When the bag is used, it is first fluffed up
water-repellent material; an inner bag (moun- so that the down and feather insulation is
tain type), of quilted tubular construction, evenly distributed in channels, thus preventing
filled with a mixture of down and feathers; matting. Since cold penetrates from below,
and an outer bag (arctic bag), of the same and the insulation inherent in the bag is com-
material as the inner bag. In addition, an in- pressed by the weight of the body, additional
sulating air mattress and a waterproof bag insulation is placed under the bag whenever
into which the sleeping bags are packed are possible. Added insulation can be obtained by
issued. placing ponchos, extra clothing, backboards,
fiber ammunition or food containers, or
b. When temperatures are normally above boughs between the sleeping bag and the
14° F., only one bag is used. It is placed in and ground. The insertion of a waterproof cover,
laced to the cover. When temperatures are be- such as a poncho, between the sleeping bag
low 14° F., both bags are used. The inner bag and air mattress will prevent the mattress
is placed inside the outer bag and secured at and bag from freezing together at very cold
16 AGO 8641A
temperatures. This is caused by condensation 2-13. Manpack Equipment
on the mattress due to the difference in tem- a. Rucksack-Nylon, OG 106 (fig. 2-7).
peratures between the lower side touching the (1) The nylon rucksack consists of the
ground and the upper side touching the rela- following:
tively warm sleeping bag. Care must be taken (a) A lightweight aluminum alloy
to prevent puncturing the mattress or damag- frame to which all other compo-
ing sleeping bags. In general, the more insula- nents are attached.
tion between the sleeping bag and the ground,
the warmer the body. (b) A lightweight aluminum alloy
cargo support shelf provided as op-
d. If the tactical situation permits, individ- tional equipment for attachment to
uals should avoid wearing too many clothes in the frame when the frame is used
the sleeping bag. When too many clothes are as a packboard.
worn they tend to bunch up, especially at the (c) A pouch fabricated from 4-ounce
shoulders, thereby restricting circulation and nylon fabric.
inducing cold. Too many clothes also increase (d) Nylon left and right shoulder
the bulk and place tension upon the bag, thus straps. The left shoulder strap has
decreasing the size of the insulating airspaces a quick-release device designed to
between layers and reducing the efficiency of facilitate rapid doffing of the ruck-
the insulation. In addition, too many clothes sack. The right shoulder strap has
may cause the soldier to perspire and result in a rapid adjustment buckle for
excessive moisture accumulating in the bag, a lengthening the strap which allows
condition which will likewise reduce the bag’s the wearer to fire his rifle while in
insulating qualities. the prone position. The two straps
e. The sleeping bag is equipped with a full are interchangeable to accommo-
length slide fastener which has a free run- date left-handed soldiers.
ning, nonlocking slider. In an emergency, the (e) A nylon webbing waist belt de-
bag can be opened quickly by grasping both signed to prevent the rucksack
sides of the opening near the top of the slide from swinging to either side or
fastener and pulling the fastener apart. As a bouncing during body movements.
safety precaution, bags should be tested at (f) A rifle carrier consisting of a rifle
frequent intervals to insure that the slide fast- butt pocket, constructed of nylon
webbing, with a double hook and
ener operates freely and will function properly. a rifle strap.
f. The sleeping bag should be kept clean (2) The nylon rucksack is the normal
and dry. It should be opened wide and venti- pack equipment used for operations
lated after use to dry out the moisture that in northern areas and replaces the
accumulates from the body. Whenever possi- rucksack, with frame (Standard C).
ble, it should be sunned or aired in the open. It should be noted that this item may
The bag always should be laced in its water- be issued in lieu of the nylon ruck-
repellent case and carried in the waterproof sack. It should also be noted that the
bag to prevent snow from getting on it. The plywood packboard may be issued in
warmth of the body could melt the snow dur- lieu of the nylon rucksack. The sol-
ing the night and cause extreme discomfort. dier using the rucksack can carry ex-
Individuals should avoid breathing into the tra clothing and rations in the nylon
bag. If the face becomes too cold it should be pouch and can also carry one sleep-
covered with an item of clothing. Sleeping ing bag (in waterproof bag). When
bags should be drycleaned at least twice a the nylon pouch is removed and cargo
year. As a safety precaution, bags should be support shelf attached, the rucksack
thoroughly aired prior to use to prevent possi- may be used as a packboard for car-
ble asphyxiation from entrapped drycleaning rying loads weighing approximately
solvent fumes. 50 pounds (TC 10-8).
AGO 8041A 17
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18 AGO 8641A
b. Suspenders and Belt, Individual Equip- protective case to avoid scratching or breaking
ment. The suspenders and belt of the M-56 the lens. If sunglasses are lost or broken, a
standard load-carrying equipment is worn be- substitute can be improvised by cutting thin,
neath the nylon rucksack to carry ammunition 3 cm (l”) long slits through a scrap of wood
pouches, first aid or compass case, and the or cardboard approximately 15 cm (6”) long
entrenching tool. The suspenders and belt and 3 cm ( 1“ ) wide. The improvised sun-
should be adjusted to fit loosely over the cold glasses (fig. 2-8 ) can be held on the face with
weather clothing, to allow for proper ventila- strips of cloth if a cord is not available.
tion. The suspender belt combination is de- b. Canteens.
signed so that the belt can be worn unbuckled (1) Canteen, water; cold climatic (fig.
while on the march, if additional ventilation 2-9), This canteen is a vacuum-in-
is required. sulated canteen of one quart capacity
2-14. Miscellaneous Equipment with an unpainted dull finish steel
exterior. The inner and outer stain-
a. Sunglasses, Sunglasses always should be less steel vessels are welded together
worn on bright days when the ground is cov- at the top of the neck. A nonmetallic
ered with snow. They are designed to protect mouthpiece at the neck prevents lips
the eyes against sunglare and blowing snow. from freezing to the metal neck. A
If not used, snow blindness may result. They plastic cap seals and protects the
should be used when the sun is shining mouthpiece. A nesting type metal cup
through fog or clouds, A bright, cloudy day is with a capacity of one pint is pro-
deceptive and can be as dangerous to the eyes vided for eating and drinking bever-
as a day of brilliant sunshine. The sunglasses ages. The canteen with cup is carried
should be worn to shade the eyes from the in a canvas cover which fastens to
rays of the sun that are reflected by the snow. field equipment in a manner similar
Snow blindness is similar to sunburn, in that to the conventional canteens. Care
a deep burn may be received before discomfort must be taken to insure that the
is felt. To prevent snow blindness, sunglasses mouthpiece or cap are not lost. A
must be used from the start of exposure. sharp blow to the canteen may result
Waiting for the appearance of discomfort is in denting or rupture with conse-
too late. The risk of snow blindness is in- quent loss of insulating capabilities.
creased at high mountain altitudes because the (2) Conventional metal and plastic can-
clear air allows more of the burning rays of teens. Conventional canteens are car-
sunlight to penetrate the atmosphere. When ried in a fabric carrier; however,
not being used, they should be carried in the this will not keep the liquid in the
canteen from freezing in extreme
cold. When possible, the canteen
should be carried in one of the pock-
ets or wrapped in any woolen gar-
ment and packed in the rucksack. If
available, warm or hot water should
be placed in the canteen before start-
ing an operation. During extreme
cold the canteen should never be filled
over two-thirds full. This will allow
room for expansion if ice should
form, and will prevent the canteen
from rupturing. Insure that the gask-
ets are in the cap at all times. This is
an important precaution and will pre-
vent the liquid from leaking out and
—%• 1bo4e rut*.t. dampening the clothing in the ruck-
AGO 8641A 19
I 'I __________

ius.t

sack. Conventional thermos bottles d. Emergency Kit. It is recommended that


will keep liquids hot, or at least un- all personnel carry an emergency kit for use
frozen for approximately 24 hours, in individual survival. With this kit, an indi-
depending on temperatures. If can- vidual can survive off the land by trapping
teens or thermos bottles freeze, they and fishing- and can procure the minimum
should be thawed out carefully to pre- amount of food necessary to maintain his
vent bursting. The top should be strength for a short period of time.
opened and the contents allowed to (1) 1 each emergency thong.
melt slowly. (2) 1 each sharp pocketknife.
(3) Single-edge razor blades.
c. Pocket Equipment. There are several (4) Waterproof matches.
small items that should be carried in the (5) Safety pins.
pockets so they will be readily available for (6) Fishing line.
use. Having these items when they are needed (7) Fire starters.
will contribute to the well-being of individuals (8) Salt tablets.
and help prevent injuries. A good sharp (9) High protein candy bars.
pocketknife is an essential item. It is useful for (10) Bouillon cubes.
cutting branches, in shelter construction, in
repairing ski bindings, and numerous other 2-15. Steel Helmet
tasks. Waterproof matches should be carried The steel helmet may be worn during warm
and kept in the watertight matchbox and used periods in cold areas in the same manner as in
only in an emergency. They should never be moderate climates. During cold periods it is
used when ordinary matches and lighters will normally worn over the Cap, Insulating Hel-
function. Sunburn preventive cream will pro- met Liner-Helmet. The helmet may also be
tect the skin from bright, direct sunshine, worn under the winter hood.
from sunrays reflected by the snow, and from
strong winds. The chapstick will prevent lips 2-16. Protective Mask
from chapping or breaking due to cold weather a. The Mask, Protective, Field, M17 is the
or strong winds. The chapstick should be pro- Army standard protective mask. Information
tected from freezing. The emergency thong on this mask can be found in TM 3-4240-
has numerous uses, such as lashing packs, re- 202-15. TM 3-4240-202-15, describes the
placing broken bootlaces, and repairing ski winterization measures for the M17 Mask. In
and snowshoe bindings. addition to the wearing of tinted antiglare
20 AGO 8641A
outserts for the plastic lenses, this kit pro- that the facepiece of the protective mask will
vides for winterization inlet and nosecup not protect the face from the cold and that,
valves together with an ice prefilter. This al- in fact, the opposite is true. The danger of
lows the standard mask to be worn at tem- frostbite increases when the mask is worn.
peratures down to –50° F. with the M6A2 d. The three automatic atropine injections
hood. of 2 mg each, carried as accessories during
b. The protective mask may be worn in moderate temperature conditions, are carried
moderately cold weather in the same manner in a pocket of the protective mask carrier. In
as in moderate climates. When the mask is cold weather (40° F. and below), the injectors
used in extreme cold, the rubber facepiece will be removed from the carrier and placed
should be warm enough to make it pliable in the inside of the right-hand pocket of the
when it is adjusted to the wearer’s face. One OG shirt, where body temperature will pre-
method of keeping the mask warm is to carry vent freezing.
it inside the outer garments and next to the 2-17. Body Armor
body. It is also recommended that the mask be
kept inside the sleeping bag during the night. Standard issue body armor may be worn
On removing the mask, any moisture on the with either of the cold weather uniforms.
face should be wiped off immediately to pre- When worn with the cold-wet uniform it is
vent frostbite. After drying the face, the face- worn over the OG shirt and under the coat
piece of the mask should be thoroughly dried and liner. When worn with the cold-dry uni-
to prevent freezing of moisture inside the form it is worn over the OG shirt and under
mask. The rubber cover of the outlet valve the coat and liner or the parka and liner. Al-
should also be raised and the valve, surround- though the body armor is worn primarily for
ing area, and the inside of the cover wiped dry protection against shell and mortar fragments,
to prevent the outlet valve from icing. it may provide additional environmental pro-
tection for the user; however, because of the
c. If it becomes necessary to wear the mask weight, armor should be worn only for its
for protection against chemical agents during primary purpose and not for additional
extreme cold weather, troops must be advised warmth.

AGO 8641A 21
CHAPTER 3
SMALL UNIT LIVING

Section 1. GENERAL
3-1. Characteristics of Operations in Cold for cold weather operations. Under normal op-
Weather erating conditions they will work together,
Unlimited space and a sparse, widely scat- cook and eat together, and share the same tent
tered population are dominant features of most or other shelter. These small units should be
of the colder regions of the world. Such condi- formed at the beginning of training and, if
tions permit unrestricted maneuver for troops possible, kept intact. The standard to be
properly trained and equipped for cold weather achieved is a unit which can make or break
operations. Warfare under such circumstances camp quickly, efficiently, and silently under all
is characterized by, widely dispersed forces conditions; one in which each man knows the
operating at great distances from other units tasks to be completed and does them without
or their parent organization. Units must be having to be told.
highly mobile and have the ability to sustain b. Small units operating in cold weather
themselves while carrying out independent op- must be thoroughly familiar with the special
erations over extended periods of time. equipment required and the techniques in-
volved in living away from their parent orga-
3-2. Composition of Units nization for extended periods of time. Equip-
a. Small units (squad, gun crew, tank crew, ment, and the techniques of using it, are dis-
wire team, etc.) form the basic working group cussed in this chapter.

Section II. TENTAGE AND OTHER EQUIPMENT


3-3. General tions depends upon adequate shelter. Tents and
A considerable quantity of various types of stoves, therefore, become a vital part of cold
special equipment is required to maintain small weather equipment.
units in cold weather. Permanent shelters are b. In cold weather, tents should be placed as
usually scarce in northern areas of operations close as practicable to the scene of activity,
and heated shelters are required. Special tools whether the activity be combat or administra-
are necessary for establishing bivouacs, break- tive. By so placing the tents, rotation of men
ing trails, and constructing temporary winter for warmup is possible and maximum conti-
roads and battle positions. nuity of effort can be maintained.
c. Tents vary in size and shape, depending
3-4. Need for Shelter on their purpose. Small units such as a rifle
a. In order to conduct successful military op- squad, artillery section, or similar type unit
erations in cold weather and maintain a high are normally equipped with one 10-man arctic
level of combat efficiency and morale, heated tent. During combat, fewer tents will be
shelter must be provided for all troops. An in- needed, as part of the personnel are always on
dividual’s ability to continue to work, live, guard detail, occupying positions, or perform-
move, and fight under extreme climatic condi- ing similar missions. It may become necessary
22 AGO 864lA
for the unit, temporarily, to use only one-half airspace the same as in clothing. It is de-
or one-fourth of its tentage; i.e., one 10-man signed to provide insulation against the cold.
tent per platoon, with the men sleeping on a It also prevents frost from forming on the in-
rotation basis. Reduced numbers of tents and side of the tent. Heat is provided by stoves
stoves will decrease the requirement for logis- (normally the M-1950 Yukon stove).
tical support, such as fuel and transportation.
b. Tent, Artic, 10-Man (fig. 3-1). The six-
d. Elements smaller than the rifle squad sided, pyramidal tent, supported by a telescopic
(tank and SP artillery crews), which require pole, normally accommodates ten men and
less shelter space, are normally equipped with their individual clothing and equipment. It will
the 5-man tent (FM 31-71). accommodate additional men by leaving in-
e. Normally, small reconnaissance patrols dividual packs and equipment outside the tent
are not equipped with tents, as tents tend to overnight and by lowering the telescopic pole
hamper the mobility and speed of the patrol. to spread the sidewalls to cover more ground
Strong combat patrols and long-range recon- surface. It may also function as a command
naissance patrols may be equipped with tents post, aid station, or as a small storage tent. The
and stoves if sufficient transportation is avail- tent has two doors; this permits tents to be
able to move the extra weight. When speed is joined together, with access from one to the
of the essence, patrols will improvise shelters other, when additional space is required. A
built from local materials at hand. For semi- snow cloth is attached to the bottom of the
permanent base camps, portable type frame sidewalls for sealing the tent to the ground.
shelters may be erected for increased com- This is accomplished by piling and packing
fort of the troops. snow on the snow cloth. If the tent is used in
terrain where there is no snow, sod or other
3-5 Description of Tentage materials may be used to seal the bottom of
a. General. Tentage issued for use in cold the tent. Flexible plastic screen doors are pro-
weather is designed on the same layer prin- vided and may be attached front and rear of
ciple as cold weather clothing. It is, however, the tent for protection against insects. The tent
made of only two layers. The outside layer is is ventilated by four built-in ventilators on
made of strong, tightly woven fabric. It is opposite sides and near the peak of the tent.
water repellent and impervious to rain and Four lines are provided for drying clothing
snow. The inner layer is much lighter in and equipment. Total weight, to include the
weight than the outer layer. The liner is fas- pins and tent pole, is 76 pounds. The tent is
tened by toggles to the tent and provides an heated by an M1950 Yukon stove.

\\ /_— Wl—LEIU bOE


bibE ObElliltO

.\ Jy/
rulE

iEHL f/f ,—2$OM cro.u4


11

LQac1 uI.c o-,uar

AGO 8641A 23
/:,
3$t
c. Tent, Hexagonal, Lightweight (fig. 3-2). heated by one tent stove M1941. The heavier
This tent is also six-sided, pyramidal, and sup- weight of this tent restricts its normal use to
ported by a telescopic tent pole. It is designed permanent or semipermanent base camps. It
to accommodate four to five men and their in- could be used for forward elements under
dividual clothing and equipment. Under emer- stabilized conditions.
gency conditions one tent may provide shelter
for a rifle squad or other similar unit when
rucksacks are placed outside the tent. The tent
has one door; ventilation is provided by two
built-in ventilators located on opposite sides
and near the peak of the tent. Three lines are
provided for drying clothing and equipment.
Total weight of the tent, including the pins
and center poles, is 48 pounds. The tent is
heated by an M1950 Yukon stove.
d. Tent, Frame-Type, Sectional (James-
way). This 16 by 16 frame-type tent (fig.
3-3) is a lightweight unit that offers protec-
tion for one squad. It has wooden floor units, bst %—%•
a frame, a rounded roof, and comfortable head
clearances along the centerline of the shel- e. Tent, General purpose, Small (fig. 3-4).
ter. The roof and ends of the tent are fabri- This tent is a six-sided pyramidal tent fabri-
cated from insulated, coated, fabric blankets. cated of cotton duck cloth. A liner is available
The structure is fastened to the ground with to insulate the tent furing cold weather. The
tent pins or snow with improvised devices. An
optional vestibule may be erected at one or tent is equipped with slide fastener doors,
both ends. Additional floor sections may be screened doors, screened ventilators, and stove-
added to each other lengthwise for creating pipe opening. It has a front and rear entrance,
larger buildings. Extra end sections may be each with a lacing flap arrangement to permit
installed along any rib as interior partitions. attachment of the vestibule or erection of tents
It weighs approximately 2,250 pounds and is in tandem. The tent is supported by eight ad-
24 AGO 8641A
1!st %-1 St.bO& wt

justable aluminum poles around the eave line tain a lower silhouette and gain ad-
and a standard telescopic magnesium pole at vantage of ground temperatures
the peak. The tent is used for command posts, which are generally warmer than air
fire direction centers, battalion aid stations, or temperatures. Coniferous boughs or
for any general purpose use. Although similar similar material should then be
in appearance to the Tent, Arctic, 10-man, placed on the ground for insulation
the tent has an eave height of 152.40 cm (60”) and comfort. When it is impractical
compared to 91.44 cm (36”) for the 10-man to remove snow to ground level, an
tent. The complete tent, with liner, pins and adequate tent site may be made by
poles weighs 186 pounds. packing the snow with skis or snow-
shoes until a firm base is provided
3-6. Pitching and Striking Cold Weather for pitching. In this case, the tent
Tents pole is placed on a log or other suit-
a. With proper training, small troop units able support to keep the pole from
will be able to pitch tents in 15 to 30 minutes. sinking into the snow. Support is also
Additional time will be required to complete needed for the stove under similar
the camouflage of the tent. Pitching and strik- conditions.
ing of the tents are performed in a routine (2) In open terrain, with a strong wind,
drill manner in accordance with instructions it may become necessary to build a
contained in FM 20-15. snow wall on the windward side of
b. The following must be considered when the tent to protect it from the wind.
pitching or striking the tents in snow or on The snow wall also makes it easier
frozen ground: to heat the tent and less likely that
(1) Whenever possible snow should be the tent will blow down. The tent is
cleared to the ground surface to ob- pitched with the entrance 45° down-
AGO 8641A 25
bEAYIMG MIlID DIbEC.UOM
aio '' a,o Mvrr—

1.," 1Ii.i11t1Jt'11
EU$V1E . DOMMMIIID

t %—• ' ' cw çpu


wind (fig. 3-5). Variable winds may through the ice. A short stick or pole
require construction of a windbreak with a piece of rope or wire tied in
at the entrance. High winds in cer- the middle of it is pushed through and
tain cold areas necessitate anchoring then turned across the hole under-
the tent securely. When the tent is neath the ice (c, fig. 3-6). If the ice
set up, the snow cloth should be flat is very thick a hole 30 to 60 cm (1' to
on the ground outside the tent. 2') deep is cut in it, the “deadman”
Stones, logs, or other heavy objects inserted and the hole filled with slush
should be placed on the snow cloth in or water (d, fig, 3-6). When the slush
addition to the snow to assist in or water is frozen, an excellent an-
anchoring the tent. If this is not done, chor point is provided. When the
the tent will be drafty and very diffi- “deadman” is placed underneath or
cult to keep warm. into the ice, a piece of rope or wire
(3) Tents may be pitched rapidly and should be fastened to the rope or wire
anchored securely by attaching the after the “deadman” is secure. This
tent lines to trees, branches, logs or may prevent the tent line from being
stumps whenever possible. If these accidentally cut or damaged when be-
natural anchors are not available, ing removed from the ice.
suitable holes are dug into the snow
for the purpose of using “deadmen.”
This is accomplished by digging a
hole into the snow large enough to
insert a pole or log approximately one
/
.c\\\\ \\"\\\\\\\\
\\ bVCk(D
meter (3') long with the tent line at- MO
tached. The hole is then filled with
snow, well packed, and in a short pe-
riod of time the packed snow freezes
and the tent will be securely anchored 114E
'I AP
(a, fig. 3-6). Driving metal pins into i4OfQ Ct MISC

frozen or rocky ground should be


Ct
Ct Ml( 'Is QIvIEj(b
I
r \
\\.\ I
avoided when excessive force is re- ro.e I
quired. On rocky ground, tent lines
may be tied around heavy rocks and
then weighted down with other stones fl6qUJUU pI1LGq IJ bvcJc6q IJOM
(b, fig. 3-6). p j6uc J!IJe pni4Gq ciiiq6L aoi
II-V'MTTtfR c,IHtTnt riiinrtRn TCG
(4) Tents are also occasionally pitched on qr D613" bJucGq IJ }JGJC
CG
ice. When the thickness of the ice is
not excessive, a small hole is chopped $IK %— \OtS XtO8 O t$ttO.$3t Q3S$
26 AGO 864lA
(5) When striking the tent in winter it may be constructed by forming a pipe with
normally will be covered with snow green logs (fig. 3-7). The channel is buried
and ice which must be removed or in the floor and has an opening under the
the tent may double in weight. Snow stove. The draft of the stove draws fresh air
and ice can be removed easily by from outside the tent into the channel.
shaking the tent or by beating it with
a mitten or a stick. If the snow cloth
is frozen to the ground, the snow and
ice around it must be carefully re-
moved by chopping or shoveling in
order to avoid damage to the mate- 2LOA h
rial. One method of accomplishing
this is to ease the shovel between the
cloth and the ground and gently pry ErOe2
the cloth away from the ice. •

roM o DbVL
c. The vestibule attached to the basic
frame-type tent (Jamesway) helps reduce heat %—• \o
loss when the door is frequently used. The
main door of the tent opens inward, and thus
cannot be blocked by drifting snow if the oc- 3-8. Heating Tents with Stove, Yukon,
cupants are equipped with a shovel or impro- Ml950, 60,000 BTU
vised digging equipment. However, the vesti- a. General. The Yukon stove (1, fig. 3-8) is
bule door opens outward and can be blocked by used to heat the 10-man, 5-man, and GP Small
drifting snow during a violent storm. A safe tents. In addition to providing heat, the top
practice is to install the vestibule only at one surface of the stove and, to a small degree, the
end facing the prevailing wind and to use no area beneath the stove, may be used to cook
vestibule on the more leeward end where rations or heat water. The Yukon stove utilizes
drift will probably accumulate. Rapid exit in standard leaded motor fuel as its normal fuel,
case of fire or other emergency is then assured. but may also be operated with white gasoline,
Where severe winds are expected the tent kerosene, light fuel oil, naptha, or JP-4 fuel,
should be sited crosswise to the anticipated without modification (2, fig. 3-8). During low
wind direction since the curved roof tolerates temperatures the stove will burn five gallons
the wind load better than the flat ends, and of gasoline every 8 to 12 hours. When solid
buffeting is reduced. A vestibule should not be fuels (wood, coal, etc.) are used, the stove must
used on a tent intended for aid station use, be modified by removing the oil burner from
since a standard litter cannot negotiate the the top of the stove, closing the opening where
right angle turn required in the short vestibule. the burner was installed, and turning over the
3-7. Ventilation wire grate so that there is space below the
grate for draft and ashes. A piece of plywood
a. Tents are pitched to protect-occupants slightly larger than the base of the stove
from the elements and to provide necessary should be carried as part of the tent group
warmth and comfort. When the bottom of the equipment. The plywood is covered with alumi-
arctic tent is properly sealed and the doors are num foil and is used to provide a firm base
zipped shut, moisture will form on the inside for the stove and to prevent it from melting
of the tent and accumulate on clothing and down into the snow.
equipment, thereby causing dampness and b. Operating Procedures. The compact, light-
hoarfrost. In addition, carbon monoxide, car- ly constructed, 33-pound Yukon stove permits
bon dioxide, and fumes from the stoves may all accessory parts to be packed within the
soon accumulate to a dangerous degree. To stove body for convenient portability in a sled
offset these factors, the built-in ventilators or on a packboard. A draft diverter is issued
near the peak of the tent must be kept open. as a component part of the stove. It shields the
b. To improve ventilation, a draft channel top of the stovepipe from the wind and pre-
AGO 8641A 27
(6') in length; the poles are tied about two-
thirds of the way up using wire from ration
cases, string, rope, or emergency thong, and
then spread out to form a tripod. The fuel can
should be at least one meter (3') higher than
the stove. The lowest part of the inverted gaso-
line can should be a minimum of 30 cm (1')
above the level of the needle valve of the Yukon
stove. It should not be higher than 1.50 meters
(5') if the valve is to operate smoothly. If
the fuel can is wobbly or if there is some wind
the can must be tied to the tripod for addi-
tional protection. Make certain that the can
is tilted so that air is trapped in the upper-
most corner. The stove is assembled, operated,
and maintained in accordance with TM 10-
i B0 735.
c. Precautions. The following precautions
must be observed when the Yukon stove is
used:
(1) Burning liquid fuels.
(a). All stovepipe connections must be
s srrCsS CV
tight and necessary tent shields ad-
justed properly.
c1 JMSI
(b) Stove must be level to insure that
the burner assembly will spread an
even flame within the stove.
(c) The fuel hose must be protected so
it cannot be pulled loose accident-
ally. If necessary, a small trench
may be dug and the hose imbedded
where it crosses the tent floor.
(d) The fuel line must not be allowed
to touch the hot stove.
(e) When adjusting the fuel flow, the
drip valve lever must be turned
carefully to prevent damage to the
threads.
(f) Rate of fuel flow must be checked
at regular intervals. The rate of
S Ia;uJiv;ou ae;nb flow will change as fuel supply level
drops and will require some ad-
'k_$fl. %—% O4 JStyOM %Si justment. The stove should never
be left unattended. Maintaining a
vents a backdraft from forcing smoke or gases hotter fire than necessary may
into the stove and tent. Three, 4.5 meter (15') cause the stove body to become
guylines tied to the draft diverter serve to overheated and warp.
anchor the stovepipe in strong winds. These (9) If the flame is accidentally extin-
guylines must be anchored to the tent or tent guished, or if the fuel can is being
ropes, not to the ground or nearby trees. A changed, the drip valve must be
simple method of erecting a tripod for the fuel closed. When the stove has cooled,
can is to obtain three poles about 2 meters any excess fuel inside the stove
28 AGO 8641A
must be wiped up and 2 or 3 min- Tent Stove will burn five gallons in 3 to 4
utes allowed for gas fumes to es- hours. Prior planning must be accomplished to
cape before relighting the burner. reduce the number of stoves required, espe-
The burner must be cool before re- cially for operations that are some distance
lighting stove. If stove lit before from a road net. Wood should be used as fuel
burner is cool, the fuel will vaporize whenever possible. Cooking and heating are
prior to ignition, causing an explo- combined and, when extra heat is required to
sion. dry clothes, all individuals should dry clothes
(h) All fuel supplies must be kept out- at the same time, when possible.
side the tent. Spare cans of gaso-
line or other fuel should never be 3-11. Lighting Tents
stored inside the tent. Fuels used Candles will provide light in forward areas.
in combat areas in the north are In rear areas, gasoline lanterns or lighting
normally low temperature fuels equipment sets may be used.
which will flow freely.
3-12. Tools
(2) Burning solid fuels.
(a) Fuel should be fed a small amount a. Handtools are needed by small units for
at a time until the bed of coals is several purposes such as erection and striking
burning brightly. the tent, building ski and weapon racks, build-
(b) Stove should not be allowed to ing field latrines, chopping firewood, etc. Tools
overheat. are also needed for trailbreaking, preparation
(c) Oil or gasoline should not be poured of positions, and similar tasks. Because en-
on the fire. trenching tools are lightly constructed, they
(d) Ashes should not be allowed to ac- are of little value for work in heavy timber or
cumulate below the grate. frozen ground. The following tools are needed
by squad sized units to accomplish routine
(e) Clinkers should be removed to pre- tasks in cold regions, regardless of the season
vent grate from becoming blocked. of the year:
3-9. Heating of Semipermanent Tents With (1) One axe, chopping.
Tent Stove, Ml941 (2) One saw (Buck or Swede).
Stoves of this type normally are used to pro- (3) Two machetes with sheaths.
vide heat for the semipermanent, frame-type, (4) One shovel, general purpose.
sectional tent. The stove may be operated with b. Tools must be kept sharp, clean, oiled and
wood or coal or with various types of oil and in good condition. Care must be taken to pre-
gasoline. This stove has the same general char- clude small tools and items of equipment from
acteristics and safety features outlined for the being left in the snow or thrown aside where
Yukon stove in paragraph 3–8. they may become buried and lost in the snow.
Particular care must be exercised while wear-
3-10. Fuel Economy ing gloves because ice or frost may form on the
The minimum daily fuel consumption per gloves and cause the tools to slip from the users
Yukon stove approximates five gallons of gaso- hands, resulting in injury to nearby person-
line per 8 to 12 hours of operation. The M1941 nel and/or loss of equipment.

Section III. IMPROVISED SHELTERS


3-13. Requirement for Improvised Shelters open for long periods unless they are moving.
a. There are many occasions when tents or The requirement for improvised shelters may
arise for several reasons, e.g., vehicles carry-
other regular shelters are not available. In ing tents may be unable to reach the troops due
summer, if the weather is mild, individuals to difficult terrain or enemy action. In case of
may need protection only from insects. In emergency, each individual must know how to
winter, however, individuals cannot stay in the protect himself from the effects of the weather.
AGO 8641A 29
b. If suitable natural shelters such as caves shelters and lean-tos may be made by attach-
or rock shelves are available, they should be ing ponchos to trees, tree branches or poles.
used. If natural shelters are not available, a a. One-Man Shelter. A one-man shelter
temporary improvised shelter must be estab- (fig. 3-9) may be made from one poncho. The
lished. poncho is spread, hood side up, on the ground,
c. The type of improvised shelter to be built and the hood opening is tightly closed by ad-
depends on the equipment and materials avail- justing and typing the hood drawstrings. The
able By the proper use of materials available, poncho is raised at the middle of its short di-
some sort of shelter can be built during any mension to form a ridge, and then staked out
season of the year. In open terrain a shelter at the corners and sides. Side stakes should
can be built using ponchos, canvas, snowblocks, not be driven through the grommets at the
or other materials. Snow caves, snow trenches, corners or sides, because this may tear the
or snow holes may be constructed in the win- poncho. A short piece of rope is tied to the
ter if the snow is both deep and well-com- grommets and, in turn, to the stakes. Snow,
pacted. In the woods, a lean-to is normally sod, or boughs are used to seal two sides and
preferable to other types of shelter. In north- one end of the shelter to provide additional
ern areas, nature provides the individual with protection from the wind and to retain heat
the means to prepare a shelter. His comfort, inside the shelter.
however, greatly depends on his initiative and b. Two-Man Shelter. To construct a two-man
skill at improvising. shelter (fig. 3-9), ponchos are spread on the
d. A shelter should always provide adequate ground, hood side up, with the long sides to-
protection from the elements, retain heat, have gether so that the snap fastener studs of one
suitable ventilation, and provide drying facil- poncho may be fastened to the snap fastener
ities. sockets of the other poncho. Hood openings
must be tightly closed by adjusting and tying
3-14. Poncho Shelters the hood drawstrings. Ponchos are raised
A poncho is a part of an individual’s uni- where they are joined to form a ridge; ropes
form. It is a multipurpose piece of equipment are then attached to grommets at the ends of
that may be used as a rain garment, a water- the ridge and run over forked sticks. The shel-
proof bedcover, a ground sheet, or a shelter. ter tent is then staked out at the corners and
The simplest type of shelter can be made by sides, as described in a above. A third poncho
merely pulling the poncho over the sleeping may be snapped into the other ponchos to form
bag. For additional comfort, various types of a ground cloth.

'-HOOD
IE IVD tV.LJILD

k
-
r OME— WH 3HEr.LEB S .LMO - VVK 2HEr.LEb

I. •U nirgnr tiøtciQ

30 AGO 8641A
3-15. Lean-To using snowblocks instead of a heavy
a. Materials. The lean-to shelter, used in for- log. Stringers approximately 3 meters
ested areas, is constructed of trees and tree (10') long and 5 to 8 centimeters
limbs. String or wire helps in the building, (2" to 3") in diameter are then
but is not necessary. A poncho, a piece of can- placed, approximately 46 cm (18")
vas, tarpaulin, or a parachute, in addition to apart, from the crosspiece over the
the baughs, may be used for covering. top of the log in the rear of the shel-
ter. Material such as cardboard, can-
vas or ponchos may be placed over the
011 1.1,
,Iu—u' framework to preclude falling or
0-u. I'—
melting snow, warmed by the fire,
from dropping through. One or both
sides of the lean-to and the roof are
then thatched.
(2) Double lean-to (fig. 3-11). Two sin-
gle lean-tos are built facing each
other and approximately 1.50 to 2
meters (5' to 6') apart. The space be-
IITI tween single lean-tos must be suffi-
cient to permit the occupants to move
__
SSIS
II
freely around the log fire placed along
tII IS the centerline of this space and to al-
low the smoke to get out through the
$t %—O opening instead of gathering under
the roofing. If desired, one end of the
middle space may be covered by a
b. Size. The lean-to is made to accommodate wall made of boughs or other mate-
a variable number of individuals. It may be rials for additional protection from
built for one man only, teams, gun crews, pa- the draft and wind.
trols, or similar small groups. From a practical
point of view, a rifle squad is the largest ele-
ment to be sheltered in one double lean-to.
c. Types. Depending on the number of indi-
viduals to be sheltered, two types of lean-tos,
single and double, are used.
d. Construction.
(1) Single lean-to (fig. 3-10). To save
time and energy, two trees of appro-
priate distance apart, and sturdy
enough to support the crosspiece ap-
proximately 1.50 meters (5') off the
ground, are selected when operating
in forested areas. It may be necessary
i—i V EI3S-O
to cut two forked poles of desired
height, or construct two A-frames to
hold the crosspieces, or use a combi- e. Heating. In heating a lean-to, any kind of
nation of these supports when bivou- oven fire may be used. The best type for large
acking in sparse wooded or semi-open size lean-tos, however, is the log fire, so the
areas. A large log is then placed to heat will be evenly distributed over the entire
the rear of the lean-to for added length of the lean-to, see paragraph 3-21 d. In
height. Other methods that may be employing open fires for heating, precautions
used are packing the snow down or must be taken to prevent the fire from burning
AGO 8641A 31

154-616 0 - 94 - 2
too hot and burning down the shelter or setting 3-18. Snow Wall
the roof on the with sparks. In open terrain with snow and ice, a snow
wall (fig. 3-13) may be constructed for protec-
3-16. Tree Shelter tion from strong winds. Blocks of compact
a. Tree-Pit Shelter. In wooded areas, the snow or ice are used to form a windbreak.
deep snow and tree-pit shelter (fig. 3-12) fur-
nishes temporary protection. To construct a
tree-pit shelter a large tree is selected with
thick lower branches and surrounded with deep
snow. The snow is shaken from the lower — *IO DI1IOI —
branches and the natural pit is enlarged
around the trunk of the tree. The walls and
floor are then lined with branches and the roof
thickened. Canvas or other material on hand
may be used for the roof.
/ / -I
'—W çrq 8OS( Stctfl•

3-19. Snow Hole


A snow hole (fig. 3-14) provides shelter
quickly. It is constructed by burrowing into a

biOM ekSYIICHE3

dttu. %1

b. Fallen Tree Shelter. An emergency shel-


ter for one man can be constructed by cutting
down a coniferous tree at a point about one
meter (3') from the ground. The underside is I JJOM JJOJ6 bL;iJJ co1m;Lffq6q
trimmed and the cut material placed on the
ground to provide insulation. This shelter will
provide some protection from the elements for
a man in his sleeping bag. Another way to
build this shelter is to tie a pole to a tree and
drape a poncho or similar material over the
pole.
3-17. Wigwam
A conventional wigwam or tepee can be
built in wooded areas by typing a number of
poles near the top and spreading them at the
bottom to form a large circle. This framework 5 UOM JJOJG coubjcçq
is then covered with available tree boughs,
canvas, cardboard, or other suitable material. " %-ir 'aro Irot,.
32 AGO 8641A
is available. Normally, a suitable site is located
snowdrift or by digging a trench in the snow on the lee side of a steep ridge or riverbank
and making a roof of ponchos and ice or snow-
blocks supported by skis, ski poles or snow- wher drifted snow accumulates in unusual
shoes. A sled provides excellent insulation for depths.
the sleeping bag. Boughs, if available, can be b. Basic Construction Principles. Basic prin-
used for covering the roof and for the bed. ciples for construction of all snow caves are
as follows:
3-20. Snow Cave (1) The tunnel entrance must give access
a. Location. A snow cave (figs. 3-15 and to the lowest level of the chamber,
3-16) can be used as an improvised shelter in which is the bottom of the pit where
the open areas where deep and compacted snow cooking is done and equipment is
stored.
(2) The snow cave must be high enough
to provide comfortable sitting space.
(3) The sleeping areas must be on a
bOrE ill
HVE1
higher level than the highest point of
the tunnel entrance so that the rising
warm air will permit the men to sleep
I more comfortably.
(4) The roof must be arched both for
strength and so that drops of water
forming on the inside will not fall on
the floor, but will follow along the
curved sides, glazing over the walls
when frozen.
(5) The roof must be at least 30 cm (1')
thick.
c. Size. The size of the snow cave depends
upon the number of men expected to occupy it.
A large cave is usually warmer and more
practical to construct and maintain than sev-
$t %—• fO:i \o. tw eral small caves. In good snow conditions a 16-
to 20-man cave is the most practical.
E—4
BOOP'1
iwuur1
I IJ AAI 1I AVD2
Li #11.. Li $
LMO I'4E11

( d. Shape. The shape of the snow cave can be


varied to suit conditions. When the main cave
is built, short side tunnels are dug to make
one- or two-man sleeping rooms, storage space,
latrine and kitchen space.
—.1 e. Construction. The following steps should
be observed in construction:

\ e (1) A deep snowdrift at least 243 cm


(8') deep is located. Newly fallen,
powdery or loose snow should be
avoided.
(2) The depth of a snowdrift may be
tested with a sharpened sapling ap-
proximately 365 cm (12') in length,
or in the absence of trees the shorter
ski pole or avalanche probe (The
PLAN availability of an avalanche probe is
Figure 3-16. Snow cave for sixteen men.
discussed in FM 31-72.)
AGO 8641A 33
(3) The entrance is chosen carefully so are a necessity, especially where snow and ice
the wind will not blow into the cave add to the problems of securing tinder for
or the entrance become blocked by starting a fire. In emergencies, matches should
drifting snow. be used sparingly and lighted candles used to
(4) A small tunnel is burrowed directly start fires whenever possible, or if available, a
into the side of the drift for one little engine oil will help ignite wet or frozen
meter (3'). A chamber is excavated wood without the flash hazard of the more
from this tunnel. volatile petroleum fuels. As a safety precau-
(5) Excavation is done to the right and tion, it should be remembered that fire starters
left so that the length of the chamber are extremely inflammable and must be kept
is at right angles to the tunnel en- away from open flames and heat.
trance. b. Selecting Site. Individuals building a fire
(6) Due to the fact that the individuals in the field should carefully select a site where
digging will become wet, they should the fire is protected from the wind. Standing
wear the minimum amount of cloth- timber or brush makes a good windbreak in
ing possible to insure that they have wooded areas, but in open country some form
a change of dry clothing upon com- of protection must be provided. A row of snow-
pletion of the task. blocks, the shelter of a ridge, or a scooped-out
f. Heating and Safety Measures. The cave side of a snowdrift will serve as a windbreak
can be heated with the one-burner gasoline on barren terrain.
stove or with candles. The fires should be ex- c. Starting and Maintaining Fire. Before
tinguished when individuals are sleeping, thus using matches, a supply of tinder must be on
reducing the danger of fire and asphyxiation. hand. The use of heat tablets is recommended
If the weather is severe and it becomes neces- for the safe starting of fires. In inclosed areas,
sary to keep a fire going while the individuals gasoline or other high inflammable fire starters
are asleep, an alert fire guard must be posted will not be used. In the open, and under very
in each cave. The ventilation holes must be strict control, small quantities of gasoline may
inspected every 2 or 3 hours to insure that they be used to start fires when other means are
have not become clogged by snow or by icing. not available. Many types of fuel are available
g. Insulation. To insure that the cave is for fires. The driest wood is found in dead,
warm, the entrance should be blocked with a standing trees. Fallen timber may often be
rucksack, piece of canvas, or snowblock when wet and less suitable. In living trees, branches
not in use. All available material, such as above snow level are the driest. Green and
ponchos, cardboard, brush, boughs, etc., should frozen trees are generally not suitable because
be used for ground insulation. they will not burn freely. Splitting green wil-
h. Other Precautions. Walking on the roof lows or birches into small pieces provides a
may cause it to collapse. At least two ventila- fairly good method of starting and maintain-
tors, one in the door and one in the roof, are ing a fire, if no deadwood is available. Also,
used. A ski pole can be stuck through the roof dry grass, birchbark, and splits of spruce bark
ventilator to clear it from the inside. Extra with pitch tar are excellent fire starters. It is
care must be exercised to keep air in the cave good practice to secure a sufficient amount of
fresh when heating or cooking. The entrance firewood to last throughout the night, before
should be marked by placing a pair of skis or retiring.
other equipment upright on each side of the d. Types of Fire. Any kind of open fire may
entry way. be used with most of the improvised shelters.
In deep snow, a fire base (fig. 3-17) of green
3-21. Campfires wood should be built first to protect the camp-
a. Matches and Fire Starters. A supply of fire from sinking into the snow. For a single
matches in a waterproof container, heat tab- lean-to or snow wall, afire reflector (fig. 3-10)
lets, or fire starters must be carried by all may be built of green logs or poles to reflect
individuals operating in cold weather. They the heat into the shelter and to serve as a
34 AGO 8641A
steadily. The most suitable types for single
and double lean-tos are the log fires (fig. 3-18). AaLIcvr

(1) Two, preferably three, logs are used


for this type of campfire. Dry, hard-
wood logs, if possible, 20 to 40 cm ____ - fli
(approx 1') in diameter and approx- MUWE ia •IbbOU
imately the same length as the lean-to
j L6

• _____
s LIJL66i0 111.6
%—% 'O 3.6*

are selected and brought to the fire


site. First, two logs are place side by
side on small green blocks to support
them above the snow or ground for a

DVeE .Ob V CYVbhIE


Ill DEEb IlOM \OIIIIMOOD
better draft. Then the third log is
placed in the middle and on the top
of the other two logs. For better
burning, the surfaces of logs which
face each other are chipped. Before
eOflCHe I1OM lighting the fire, small wedges are
bVI1CHEe placed between the chipped surfaces
of the logs for better draft. Fire is
then started at several places to help
COfl4D it spread the entire length of the logs.
A log fire of this type will burn all
night with only minimum care.
%1 9QIQ O.V $O$
(2) When only two logs are used, four
vertical stakes must be driven into
the snow to keep one log on top of the
other. A disadvantage of this type of
log fire is the fact that the vertical
stakes tend to give way when the
snow starts melting around the fire.

Section IV. FOOD AND WATER


3-22. Principles all the caloric value is to be obtained. Some
a. Importance of Balanced Meals. Army ra- items may, at times, not appeal to the indi-
tions are well balanced. The ration for 1 day vidual sense of taste, but they must be eaten.
provides all the essential foods the body re- The tendency to be lazy about preparing and
quires. However, all the ration must be eaten if eating satisfactory morning and evening meals
AGO 8641A 35
before and after a hard day on the trail must they should be issued with the rations and sent
be avoided, since it is exceedingly detrimental forward to companies with the meal. When
to continued good health. After having been using paper plates and cups, commanders must
without normal supplies for a period of time, insure that they are not haphazardly left in
it is essential that men be provided with a the unit area. Controlled disposal must be
balanced meal containing the three basic food practiced by burning at squad level or by con-
requirements (fats, protein, and carbohy- solidating at company level and returning
drates). When possible and especially when them to the battalion trains area. This problem
troops are involved in rigorous activity, it may is minimized, and cooling of food is minimized,
be desirable to feed four times daily. A desir- by the use of individual operational rations
able feeding plan would be the normal heavy which may be consumed directly from their
breakfast meal, a light midmorning meal, a containers.
light afternoon meal, with the supper meal
being the main meal of the day. The mid- 3-23. Rations
morning and midafternoon meal should con-
sist of foods high in carbohydrates and include Many types of rations are used for opera-
a hot liquid. Concentrated foods found in some tions in cold weather. The type of ration to be
special and survival rations are suitable for used will be determined by the location, supply
this purpose. Hot soup or tea are most desirable situation, mission, and duration of the oper-
for the liquid. The evening meal should be ation. Rations are normally prepared in the
heavily fortified with protein and eaten just unit kitchens. Insofar as possible two hot meals
before going to sleep. This heavy protein meal per day should be served. These generally will
will increase body combustion above basal be the breakfast and supper meals. In situations
level, resulting in what is known as specific
dynamic heat. This increase in the output of where this is not practicable, group rations are
heat within the body also aids in keeping the utilized and prepared by one member of the
individual warm while sleeping. If awakened small unit. Under certain conditions an indi-
by cold a small snack eaten inside the sleeping vidual ration may be issued to each man. When
bag may increase heat production enough to serving meals without shelter, food may be-
permit further comfortable sleep. come cold or frozen before it can be eaten.
b. Importance of Liquids. In cold regions, as Therefore, and whenever possible, shelters
elsewhere, the body will not operate efficiently should be provided for the preparation and
without adequate water. Dehydration, with its serving of food. Certain packaged rations and
accompanying loss of efficiency, can be pre- food packets are ideal under these circum-
vented by taking fluids with all meals, and stances because they are precooked and some
between meals if possible (para 3–34). Hot components or all of the ration can be eaten
drinks are preferable to cold drinks in low without heating. However, one of the com-
temperatures since they warm the body in ponents should be heated when possible.
addition to providing needed liquids. Alcoholic
beverages should not be consumed during cold a. Bulk Supplied Rations. Rations of this
weather operations since they can actually type are desirable whenever possible. They are
produce a more rapid heat loss by the body. characterized by a need for maximum time
c. Use of Mess Gear. Individual mess gear and effort for preparation, high palatability,
will be difficult to clean and sterilize, therefore a large variety in menus and a high caloric
arrangements must be made for return of dirty content. These rations are also heavy and
mess gear to the battalion trains area where it bulky.
is cleaned under the supervision of the mess (1) “A” Ration. The standard “A” Ra-
stewards. Clean mess gear is sent forward tion consisting of fresh foods is is-
with subsequent meals. During periods of ex- sued whenever possible. The caloric
treme cold, it may be advisable to utilize paper content of the ration is increased to
plates and cups instead of mess gear. If utilized, compensate for the added caloric re-
36 AGO 8641A
quirements of cold weather opera- nutrient intake prescribed by Army
tions. regulations.
(2) “B” Ration. The standard “B” Ration (3) Food packet, long-range patrol. The
is the field ration used for mass feed- packet was designed for use by forces
ing in areas where kitchen facilities, in remote areas where resupply may
with the exception of refrigeration, be uncertain for as long as 10 days,
are available. The ration consists of under tactical situations that require
approximately one hundred nonper- men to eat as individuals, but where
ishable foods. These are canned and normal supply of water is available.
dehydrated. Hot meals furnish ap- There are eight menus, all flexibly
proximately 3,900 calories per day packaged. Each furnishes over 1,000
with a 15-day cycle of menus. Caloric calories, and consists of a precooked,
content may be varied to meet re- dehydrated, combination item as the
quirements of varying climatic condi- main component, with a confection,
tions or degree of physical activity. a cereal, or fruitcake bar, coffee,
cream, sugar, toilet paper and
b. Packaged Operational Rations. Rations matches. Five menus also include
found in this category are characterized by a cocoa beverage powder. The average
need for minimum time and effort for prepa- volume is 40 cubic inches and the
ration. They have a high caloric content, average gross weight is 11 ounces.
limited menus and are lightweight. Maximum The principal menu components are
advantage is taken of dehydration and concen- packaged in a flexible combination
tration. They are for the most part served hot, package attached to a chipboard base
but certain components may be consumed cold. which gives the package a rigid bot-
(1) Ration, individual, trail, frigid. This tom while the food is being reconsti-
ration is designed for trail use under tuted in the bag. The main component
cold weather conditions. While hot may be eaten dry with drinking
meals can and are intended to be pre- water or reconstituted. If hot water is
pared from this ration, all compo- used the main component will recon-
nents, except the dehydrated soups stitute in 2 minutes, if cold water is
and beverages may be eaten without used, in 5 minutes.
preparation. Components of the ra- (4) Survival rations. Survival rations are
tion such as, processed cheese, fruit- designed for use in emergency situa-
cake bars and candy are especially tions. The food is highly concen-
adaptable to consumption in mobile trated, lightweight and requires little
situations. The inclusion of several or no preparation. Per volume it is
condiments enables maximum flexi- high in caloric content but contains
bility in component preparation. The much less than the minimum re-
ration supplies a minimum of 4,400 quired nutrient prescribed by Army
calories. It is intended for use by regulations. These rations, when
members of small patrols or trail available, are especially good to sup-
parties for short periods of time dur- plement the special rations discussed
ing which resupply is not feasible. above.
(2) Meal, combat, individual. This ration 3-24. Individual or Small Unit Messing
is designed for and is issued as the
tactical situation dictates. It can be Frequently, while on patrol or during com-
used in individual units as a meal or bat conditions, individuals will find it neces-
in multiples of three meals as a com- sary to prepare their own meals or to combine
plete ration. Twelve menus are avail- rations with other individuals within the unit.
able. Each meal furnishes approxi- a. Equipment.
mately one-third of the minimum (1) The one-burner M1950 gasoline cook-
AGO 8641A 37
ing stove is a cooking and heating little heat to make them edible. Over-
unit for a group of from 2 to 5 men cooking will waste fuel. The juices in
operating in an isolated or forward canned vegetables are tasty, and con-
area where the use of heavier equip- tain vitamins and minerals. Drinking
ment is not practical. The mountain them will conserve the water supply.
cookset is combined with the stove to Cans must be punctured or opened
make the one-burner cooking outfit. before heating by open fires or stoves.
(2) Rations may also be heated on the Failure to do this may result in an
M1950 Yukon stove. The top and to a explosion. No puncturing is needed if
small degree the area underneath the the can is submerged in water during
stove is used for this purpose. the heating process.
(3) Any fuel-burning device will give off (5) Food, including frozen meat, should
carbon monoxide, which is poisonous. be thawed before cooking. Partly
Adequate ventilation must be pro- frozen meats may cook on the outside
vided when using fuel-burning equip- while the center remains raw. Fresh
ment under shelter. meats must be cooked thoroughly to
kill any germs or parasites that may
b. Preparation. be present.
(1) First priority is the procurement of (6) Whenever possible, dried fruit should
water (para 3-30). If snow or ice be soaked overnight in cold water,
must be melted to obtain water, all then simmered slowly in the same
available stoves are utilized for this water until tender, and sweetened to
purpose. After water is obtained, the taste.
stoves are used for food preparation. (7) Canned rations, either frozen or
For convenience in preparation of thawed, can best be heated by immer-
meals and for conservation of fuel and sion in boiling water. This water can
labor, cooking should be done for as then be used for making tea, coffee,
large a group as the situation per- or soups and for washing soiled uten-
mits. sils or personal hygiene.
(2) Meals must be prepared efficiently c. Storage.
and as quickly as possible. Areas
sheltered from the wind should be (1) In winter the simplest way to pre-
chosen for stoves or fires. A few serve certain perishable foods such
blocks of snow or ice or a hole dug as meat products is to allow them to
in the snow will serve as a windbreak freeze. Rations should be stacked out-
and provide for more efficient use of side the shelter and their location
fires. Heating tablets are not efficient carefully marked. Only as much food
in extremely cold weather accom- as can be thawed and consumed be-
panied by high winds. Individuals fore spoiling should be brought into
may have to prepare and eat one item the shelter.
at a time, but a hot meal will be (2) Frozen food should not be placed near
worth the effort. heat where it may be thawed and
(3) Instructions for preparing the com- later refrozen. Once thawed, certain
ponents of the rations will be found foods may spoil. Meat thawed and
on, or inside, the package. The possi- refrozen two or three times is taste-
bility of combining the various ration less and watery, and resultant bac-
components, i.e., mixing meat and terial growth may be sufficient to
vegetables to make stew, should also cause food poisoning.
be considered.
d. Eating. Meals should be prepared at regu-
(4) Canned foods are cooked and require lar times and as much time as possible allowed
38 AGO 8641A
for cooking and eating. Men should be allowed responsible for the preparation of each meal
to relax after each meal. There will be times and this job should be rotated throughout the
when it may not be possible to prepare a meal. squad. The squad leader is responsible for sup-
Under such circumstances the meal or compo- plying any additional assistance needed by the
nents of meals must be distributed to individ- cook.
uals before breaking camp. Any frozen food is
thawed before issue to individuals. These items b. Ingenuity in Cooking. Ingenuity on the
are wrapped in spare clothing and placed in part of the man assigned to cook for the small
the rucksack or in the pack to prevent them unit will aid immeasurably in the success of
from refreezing. If time permits, halts should field messing in cold weather. Potatoes, onions,
be made for the purpose of heating food and or bacon, when available, will increase the
drink. To the extent possible, preparation of palatability of the food and can satisfactorily
the following day’s food should be done during be added to many foods. The habit of making
the night bivouac in order to shorten the time the morning coffee the night before, or using
required to break camp in the morning. two stoves to melt snow or ice for the evening’s
water supply, and of thawing out those rations
e. Suggestions. that are going to be used the next morning,
(1) Organize and control cooking. will save time and greatly simplify food prep-
aration at mealtime.
(2) Insure that all food is eaten; save any
usable leftovers for snacks between c. Eating Arrangement. When the weather
meals. is moderate, the mess line feeding system may
(3) The squad leader supervises the meals be used. During cold weather in a bivouac area
and makes sure that each man is re- the food can be prepared hot and then carried
ceiving his portion. in insulated containers to each tent for con-
sumption in a heated shelter. Food may also be
(4) Check continuously to see that each transported in this manner to frontline troops
man’s mess equipment is kept clean. by using track vehicles or other methods of
(5) Food is prepared for as large a group transport.
as possible.
(6) Fuel is conserved by prethawing 3-26. Natural Food Resources
food. This may be done by utilizing a. In some cold regions, animals are abund-
heat in the engine compartment of a ant at certain seasons of the year. In other
vehicle or by placing cans of food areas, very little game can be found during
under and around the tent heating any season of the year. A person without food
stove. in these areas must know how to “live off the
(7) Canned rations, either frozen or land” and subsist on what is available. Fish
thawed, can best be heated by im- are present in fresh-water lakes and rivers
mersion in a pot of hot water on the during all seasons of the year, and some salt
stove. This water can then-be used water near shore will normally yield fish. Fish
for washing soiled utensils. will form the most readily available and larg-
(8) Adequate training of all men in the est portion of available nourishing foods.
preparation and cooking of cold b. Small animals and birds are also present
weather rations is imperative. in most areas at all times of the year. Large
(9) One-pot meals, such as stews, save animals, because of migratory habits or other
preparation time and fuel and can be characteristics, are not a reliable source of
kept warm more easily than several food in many areas. Game should not be shot
different food items. unless necessary for survival. Animals to be
used for food should be thoroughly bled, in-
ternal organs removed, and the carcass chilled
3-25. Small Unit Messing as soon as possible. This will prolong the
a. One Man Responsible. One man should be keeping time of the meat. To expedite the
AGO 8641A 39
chilling clean snow can be packed in the body (4) A poncho may be used for wrapping
cavity. All meat should be cooked thoroughly the meat, whether for packing it out
as a safeguard against harmful micro-organ- or if it is to be left hanging for the
isms and parasites that might be present in second trip. Meat should be raised off
the carcass. Only healthy animals should be the ground as soon as possible because
used; in the absence of a person qualified to this will cool it sooner and keep it
determine if the animal is healthy, meat from away from predators. Dirt and con-
the animals that appear sick should not be tamination should be washed from
handled or eaten. For additional information, the meat and the meat then dried, if
see FM 21-76. possible. A carcass should never be
washed until it has cooled and is
3-27. Animals of Cold Regions ready to be butchered and stored.
a. Caribou and Reindeer. b. Mountain Sheep and Goats.
(1) These animals are available in many
(1) These are mainly herd animals found northern areas. Although they nor-
in the high plateaus and mountain mally live in the higher elevations,
slopes as well as in the grassy tundra during periods of heavy snow, they
areas. Their favorite year-round food may be more readily available than
is the lichens or “reindeer moss.” other animals.
Their summer diet consists of grasses,
shrubs, and brush tips. They are very (2) The procedures for skinning and
curious animals and will often ap- care of caribou and reindeer are also
proach a hunter merely from curios- applicable to sheep and goats.
ity, thus presenting a good target. c. Moose.
Sight of a human may have no effect
on them but the slightest hint of hu- (1) The moose is the largest known
man scent will send them galloping. species of the deer family. They are
It is possible to attract them near found in most areas of the northern
enough for a shot by waving a cloth hemisphere. Full grown bulls weigh
and moving slowly toward them on from 1,000 to 1,200 pounds and may
all fours. In shooting, the aim should stand two meters (6') high at the
be for the shoulder or neck rather shoulder. They require a large
than the head. amount of forage and usually may be
found in areas where food of this
(2) Reindeer have long been domesti- type is plentiful, such as burn-offs,
cated in Scandinavia and northern swamps, and lake areas.
Asia for their meat, milk, hide, and
as draft animals. (2) The procedures for the skinning and
(3) Both caribou and reindeer should be care of caribou and reindeer meat are
skinned promptly. Animal heat is the applicable to moose.
largest factor in meat spoilage. Fast d. Seals.
and complete field dressing will elim-
inate most of this hazard and airing (1) Seals are widely distributed and gen-
will finish the work. The bones and erally common. Their flesh is an ex-
muscles can hold heat for as long as cellent food. The liver should be
48 hours, if the surrounding temper- avoided since it may contain toxic
ature is not below freezing. Fat levels of Vitamin A.
should be kept with the carcass, not (2) The seals should be shot as they come
with the skin. If time does not allow to the surface of the water to breathe
skinning, at least the entrails and or as they are basking on rocks. The
genitals should be cleaned out of the aim should be for the head. Most of
animal. the seals shot through the head will
40 AGO 8641A
float, while about half of those shot foxes follow polar bear and eat their leavings.
through the body will not. Seals will Foxes will hang around a camp or follow a
also be found in the open leads in the trail party and try to steal food.
icepack or may be found at their
breathing holes in the ice. However, h. Rabbits or Hares. Rabbits or hares can
hunting seals through breathing be snared or shot. They should be shot in the
holes requires extreme patience and head or very little meat will be left. A whistle
the holes are difficult to locate with- will probably cause a running one to stop long
out the use of dogs. enough for an aimed shot. When cooking hare
or rabbit, fat of some sort, should be added as
(3) In the spring, mother seals and their the meat is very lean. They should not be
pups may sometimes be located under dressed or cut up with bare hands because of
snow hummocks adjacent to and over the danger of contracting tularemia (rabbit
breathing holes, where they have fever) from contact with the raw flesh. Com-
given birth to their young. In the pletely cooked flesh is safe to handle and eat.
spring, also, seals lie on the ice and
bask in the sun. They must be care- i. Marmots. Marmots are woodchuck-like
fully stalked and the hunter must be animals that live above the treeline in the
close enough at the time he shoots to mountains. They are excellent food, especially
retrieve the dead seal before it slips in late summer when they are very fat. The
into a hole in the ice. hunter should wait until the marmot moves
away from his den before shooting or he may
(4) It takes great skill to stalk a seal. The fall into his burrow.
Eskimo usually tries to imitate noises
made by the seal, and he may use a j. Porcupines, Beavers, and Muskrats. These
white screen behind which he crawls animals are found throughout the colder re-
while the seal sleeps, remaining ab- gions. Porcupines are excellent food, as are
solutely still when the seal raises its both beaver and muskrat. All are easily ob-
head to look around. Seals normally tained. The porcupine, beaver, and muskrat
sleep only for a few seconds at a time when found on land, can be easily killed with
and then look around for their ene- sticks.
mies for a few seconds before sleep- k. Ground Squirrels. Ground squirrels
ing again. Seal meat from which the abound in most cold areas and are easy to
blubber (fat) has not been entirely
removed will turn rancid in a short catch. They can be easily dug out of their
time. burrows. They are especially common along
streams with sandy banks.
e. Walrus. The meat and blubber (fat) of
walrus are edible, as are the clams which may 3-28. Birds
be found in their stomachs. All birds and their eggs found in cold re-
f. Bears. All bears are edible, although the gions are edible. Certain nonmigratory birds
flesh must be thoroughly cooked to guard are found in cold regions in wintertime. Sev-
against trichinosis. The liver of the polar bear eral species of grouse, like the ruffed, sharp
should not be eaten because of toxic Vitamin tail, spruce, and ptarmigan (which turn white
A concentration. All bears are dangerous and in winter) are common. To obtain the greatest
hard to kill. There should be two or more hunt- food value from birds, they should be plucked
ers in the party when hunting; soft-nosed bul- rather than skinned.
lets should be used. The shoulder shot is best.
If the bear stands up, the aim should be at 3-29. Fish
the base and center of the throat for a shot Fish form a large part of the native diet in
which will sever the vertebrae. cold regions and are almost the entire diet of
g. Wolves and Foxes. Wolves and foxes are work dogs in these areas. Along the coast, sal-
edible. Wolves follow caribou herds. Arctic mon, tomcod, flounder, sculpin, sand sharks,
AGO 8641A 41
herring and other fish are found. Inland waters be broken open at frequent intervals. Water-
yield salmon, several varieties of whitefish, holes should be marked with a stick or other
blackfish, and suckers. All fish and shellfish marker which will not be covered by drifting
are edible, with the exception of the black snow. Water is abundant during the summer in
mussel. Mussels from Pacific waters should be lakes, ponds, or rivers. The milky water of a
avoided entirely. Mussells are easily distin- glacial stream is not harmful. It should stand in
guished from clams and oysters by their a container until the coarser sediment settles.
orange-pink flesh. Shellfish can be cooked by
boiling them in water. c. In winter or summer, water obtained from
ponds, lakes and streams must be purified by
chemical treatment, use of iodine tablets or in
3-30. Water emergencies by boiling.
Water points, operated by Corps of Engineer d. During chemical, biological, and/or nu-
personnel, offer the best source of water supply clear warfare, precautions should be taken
for all troop units in any area and in any against using contaminated water sources. In
season. Under normal operating conditions, an general, cold weather conditions tend to pro-
Engineer unit with a water point capability long or conceal contamination hazards, and
will be attached to task forces of brigade size unexpected contamination may thus be en-
or larger. Engineer water point operations countered. When snow or ice is thawed to
under cold weather conditions are discussed in provide water supplies, detection tests should
FM 31–71. This paragraph, together with be conducted during or after the melting oper-
paragraphs 3–31 and 3–56 offers possible solu- ation, since frozen contamination may not be
tions to the problem of water supply that con- detectable. Radiological contamination which
fronts individuals and small detachments oper- has been covered with snow or ice may or may
ating in isolated areas away from normal not show up on radiac instruments, depending
support activities. upon the thickness of the cover. Boiling or
a. Water is plentiful in most cold regions in treating with water purification tablets has
one form or another. Potential sources are no effect on radioactive contaminants in water.
streams, lakes and ponds, glaciers, fresh-water In emergencies, water suspected of radiolog-
ice, and last year’s sea ice. Freshly frozen sea ical contamination may be filtered through a
ice is salty, but year-old sea ice has had the 15 cm (6") column of loose dirt and then
salt leached out. It is well to test freshly frozen chlorinated or iodinated. Purification of water
ice when looking for water. In some areas, showing, or suspected of containing, chemical
where tidal action and currents are small, contaminantion should not be attempted.
there is a layer of fresh water lying on top of e. After the water is obtained, the problem
the ice; the lower layers still contain salt. In of transporting and storing it arises. Units op-
some cases, this layer of fresh water may be erating in the field under cold weather con-
50 to 100 cm (20" to 40") in depth. ditions may store water in 5-gallon water cans
b. If possible, water should be obtained from with insulated covers, or other similar type
running streams or lakes rather than by melt- containers for use by small detachments or in-
ing ice or snow. Melting ice or snow to obtain dividuals. Immersion-type heaters may be used
water is a slow process and consumes large to prevent freezing of water supply tanks.
quantities of fuel, 17 cubic inches of uncom- Some points to be remembered are-
pacted snow, when melted, yields only 1 cubic (1) Transportation of water by wheeled
inch of water. In winter a hole may be cut vehicles in barren, sparsely settled
through the ice of a stream or lake to get areas under snow and ice conditions
water; the hole is then covered with snow- is practicable only when there is a
blocks or a poncho, board, or a ration box road net established. The best way to
placed over it. Loose snow is piled on top to transport water in cold regions is by
provide insulation and prevent refreezing. In the use of track-laying vehicles which
extremely cold weather, the waterhole should are not dependent on roads for ma-
42 AGO 8641A
neuverability. If 5-gallon cans are a bluish appearance. Fresh sea ice has a milky
used to carry water, they are filled appearance and is angular in shape when
only three-quarters full to allow agi- broken. Water obtained by melting snow or ice
tation of the water and help prevent may be purified by use of water purification
freezing while in transit. Cans are tablets, providing it has not been contaminated
stored off the floor in heated shelters by toxic agents.
as soon as they are delivered. Sled- c. If chemical, biological, or radiological con-
mounted, 250- to 300-gallon water tamination is detected, procedures as outlined
tanks in which immersion-type heat- in paragraph 3-30 d will be followed.
ers have been installed have proved
satisfactory.
3-32. Procedures for Melting Snow and Ice
(2) For small units of two to four men, a. Burning the bottom of a pot used for
the 5-gallon insulated food container melting snow can be avoided by “priming.”
is satisfactory for water storage. Place a small quantity of water in the pot and
These can be filled at night and will add snow gradually. If water is not available,
hold enough water for the next day’s the pot should be held near the source of heat
needs for about four men. The insula- and a small quantity of snow melted in the
tion of these containers is sufficient bottom before filling it with snow.
to keep water from freezing for as
long as 40 hours at an ambient tem- b. The snow should be compacted in the
perature of –20° F., if the tempera- melting pot and stirred occasionally to prevent
ture of the water was at boiling burning the bottom of the pot.
point when the container was filled. c. Pots of snow or ice should be left on the
stove when not being used for cooking so as
3-31. Types of Ice and Snow to have water available when needed.
a. When water is not available from other d. Snow or ice to be melted should be placed
sources, it must be obtained by melting snow just outside the shelter and brought in as
or ice. To conserve fuel, ice is preferable when needed.
available; if snow must be used, the most com-
pact snow in the area should be obtained. Snow e. In an emergency, an inflated air mattress
should be gathered only from areas that have can be used to obtain water. The mattress is
not been contaminated by animals, humans, placed in the sun at a slight inclined angle.
or toxic agents. The mattress, because of its dark color, will
be warmed by the sun. Light, fluffy snow
b. Ice sources are frozen lakes, rivers, ponds, thrown on this warm surface will melt and
glaciers, icebergs, or old sea ice. Old sea ice is run down the creases of the mattress where it
rounded where broken and is likely to be pitted may be caught in a canteen cup or other suit-
and to have pools on it. Its underwater part has able container.

Section V. HYGIENE AND FIRST AID


3-33. General 3-34. Dehydration
In cold weather, the care of the body re- a. Definition and Principle. Dehydration
quires special emphasis. If men are allowed to means to lose or be deprived of water or the
go without washing, fail to eat properly, do elements of water. A growing plant loses
not get sufficient liquids or salt, efficiency will (uses) water in the growing process. If this
water is not replaced by either natural means
suffer. Lowered efficiency increases the possi- (rain) or by watering, the plant will wither
bility of casualties, either by cold injury or and eventually dry up. The same principle ap-
enemy action. plies to the human body which loses water and,
AGO 8641A 43
an additional element, salt. A certain amount dration are similar to those encoun-
of this loss is taking place constantly through tered in heat exhaustion. The mouth,
the normal body processes of elimination; tongue, and throat become parched
through the normal daily intake of food and and dry and swallowing becomes
liquids, these losses are replaced. difficult. General nausea is felt and
b. Dangers. When individuals are engaged may be accompanied by spells of
in any strenuous exercises or activities, an ex- faintness, extreme dizziness and vom-
cessive amount of water and salt is lost iting. A feeling of general tiredness
through perspiration. This excessive loss cre- and weakness sets in and muscle
ates what is known as “imbalance of liquids” cramps may occur, especially in the
in the body and it is then that the danger of legs. It becomes difficult to keep the
dehydration arises, unless this loss of liquids eyes in focus and fainting or “black-
and salt is replaced immediately and individ- ing out” may occur.
uals are allowed sufficient rest before continu- (3) The effect of dehydration on the in-
ing their activities. dividual is to incapacitate him for a
period of from a few hours to several
c. Training and Discipline. The danger of days. The effectiveness of the indi-
dehydration for troops operating under cold vidual’s unit is likewise reduced by
weather conditions and over ice and deep snow the loss of his contribution to the
is a problem that does exist and cannot be accomplishment of the unit mission.
overemphasized. It is equally important, how- Small patrols and detachments oper-
ever, to recognize that the problem can be over- ating beyond range of immediate help
come and will present no great obstacle to well from the parent unit must be extra-
trained, disciplined troops who have been cautious to avoid dehydration since
thoroughly oriented in the causes, the symp- they run the risk of a secondary but
toms, and the effects of dehydration and who more dangerous effect of dehydration,
have been properly instructed in preventive that of becoming cold weather casual-
measures. ties while incapactiated.
d. Differences. It is important, therefore, to (4) Dehydration can be prevented during
be aware that the danger of dehydration is as cold weather operations by following
prevalent in cold regions as it is in hot, dry the same general preventive measures
areas. The difference is that in hot weather applicable to hot, dry areas. Salt and
the individual is conscious of the fact that the sufficient additional liquids are con-
body is losing liquids and salt because he can sumed to offset excessive body losses
see and feel the perspiration with its saline of these elements. The amount will
taste and “feel” it running down the face, vary according to the individual and
getting in the eyes, and on the lips and tongue, the type of work he is doing, i.e.,
and dripping from the body. In cold weather, light, heavy, very strenuous, etc. Rest
it is extremely difficult for an individual who is equally important as a preventive
is bundled up in many layers of clothing to measure. Each individual must real-
realize that this condition does exist. Under ize that any work that must be done
these conditions, perspiration is rapidly ab- while bundled in several layers of
sorbed by the heavy clothing or evaporated by clothing is extremely exhausting.
the air and is rarely visible on the skin. This is especially true of any move-
ment by foot, regardless of how short
e. Cause, Symptoms, Effects, Preventive the distance.
Measures, and Treatment. (5) In treating a person who has become
(1) Dehydration results from failure to dehydrated, the individual should be
correct the body’s “imbalance of liq- kept warm but his clothes loosened
uids” through replacing liquid and sufficiently to allow proper circula-
salt which has been lost. tion; liquids and salt should be fed to
(2) The symptoms of cold weather dehy- him gradually and, most important
44 AGO 8641A
of all, he must have plenty of rest. ence of frostbite. All individuals should shave
When salt tablets are not available, daily, when possible. Because shaving with a
common table salt may be used. Ap- blade and soap removes the protective face oils,
proximately one-half of a level mess the individuals should shave, if possible several
spoon of salt mixed in one gallon of hours before exposing his face to the elements.
water makes a palatable solution. This action will reduce the danger of frostbite.
The individual should receive prompt Shaving with an electric razor will not remove
attention of trained medical person- the protective oils. Under chemical or biolog-
nel. ical warfare conditions a beardless face and
daily shaving are especially important, since
3-35. Personal Hygiene an airtight seal of the protective mask is diffi-
Because of the extremes in temperatures and cult to obtain with even stubble on the face.
lack of bathing and sanitary facilities, keep- d. Socks should be changed and the feet
ing the body clean in cold weather will not washed daily. If this is not possible, the boots
be easy. and socks should be removed, and the feet mas-
a. The entire body should be washed at saged and dried. By sprinkling the feet liberal-
least weekly. If bathing facilities are not avail- ly with foot powder and then rubbing the
able, the entire body can be washed with the powder off, the feet can be efficiently dry-
equivalent of two canteen cups of water, using cleaned.
half for soap and washing, and half for rins- e. Sleeping bags should be kept clean. Sub-
ing. If circumstances prevent use of water, a ject to operational requirements, the best
rubdown with a dry cloth will help. Care method is to wear the minimum clothing in
should be taken not to abrade the skin. The- the sleeping bag. Never wear damp socks or
feet, crotch, and armpits should be cleaned underwear in the sleeping bag. Dry underwear
daily. and socks should be put on before going to
b. A temporary steam bath can be built in a sleep and the other set hung up to dry. Perspi-
large-size tent. Stones are piled up to form a ration will soil a sleeping bag, and cause it to
furnace. The furnace is either heated inside the become damp, therefore, the bag should be
tent (ventilation flaps wide open) or in the aired as frequently as possible. In the morning,
open with the tent pitched over the furnace the bag should be opened -wide and air pumped
after the stones are heated. Wood is used for in and out to remove the moist air within the
fuel. Seats and water buckets are taken into bag.
the tent after the stones are nearly red-hot and f. Teeth should be cleaned daily. If a tooth-
the fire has died down, so that they do not get brush is not available, a clean piece of gauze
sooty. The pouring and washing water is usu- or other cloth wrapped around the finger, or
ally heated outside the tent. The water is end of a twig chewed into a pulp may be used
thrown on the hot stones in small quantities. in lieu of a toothbrush.
Thus it does not drop into the ashes and the
temperature does not rise too fast. A naked g. Underwear and shirts should be changed
person spends from 15 minutes to 1 hour in at least twice weekly; however, if it is not pos-
this steam bath. After thoroughly perspiring, sible to wash the clothing this often the cloth-
the body is washed with tepid water. ing should be crumpled, shaken out, and aired
c. Beards should be shaved or clipped close. for about 2 hours.
Hair should be combed daily and not allowed
to grow too long. A beard or long hair adds 3-36. Cold Injury
very little in insulation value and soils cloth- a. Frostbite. Frostbite is the freezing of
ing with the natural hair oils. In winter, a some part of the body by exposure to tempera-
beard or a mustache is a nuisance since it tures below freezing. It is a constant hazard
serves as a base for the buildup of ice from in operations performed at freezing tempera-
moisture in the breath and will mask the pres- tures, especially when the wind is strong. Usu-
AGO 8641A
ally there is an uncomfortable sensation of should be massaged from time to
coldness followed by numbness. There may be time with the hands for the same
a tingling, stinging, or aching sensation, even purpose.
a cramping pain. The skin initially turns red. (g) The buddy system should always
Later it becomes pale gray or waxy white. For be used. Men should pair off and
all practical purposes frostbite may be classi- watch each other closely for signs
fied as superficial or deep. Treatment and man- of frostbite and for mutual aid if
agement are based solely upon this classifica- frostbite occurs. Any small frozen
tion. spots should be thawed immediate-
(1) It is easier to prevent frostbite, or ly, using bare hands or other
stop it in its very early stages, than sources of body heat.
to thaw and take care of badly frozen (2) Some cases of frostbite may be super-
flesh. Clothing and equipment must ficial, involving the skin. But if freez-
be fitted and worn so as to avoid in- ing extends to a depth below the skin
terference with circulation. To pre- it constitutes a much more serious
vent severe frostbite- situation, demanding radically differ-
(a) Sufficient clothing must be worn ent treatment to avoid or minimize
for protection against cold and the loss of the part (fingers, toes,
wind. The face must be protected hands, feet). If a part of the body
in high wind, and when exposed to becomes frostbitten it appears yellow-
aircraft prop blast. ish or whitish gray. Frequently there
(b) Every effort must be made to keep is no pain, so keep watching one an-
clothing and body as dry as possi- other’s face and hands for signs. The
ble. This includes avoidance of per- face, hands, and feet are the parts
spiring. For heavy work in the most frequently frostbitten. The
cold, remove outer layers as needed, problem is to distinguish between su-
and replace as soon as work is stop- perficial and deep frostbite. This can
ped. Socks should be changed as usually be told with respect to the
needed whenever the feet become face. The hands and feet are a dif-
moist, either from perspiration or ferent matter. A person may be able
other sources. to judge by remembering how long
(c) Any interference with the circula- the part has been without sensation.
tion of the blood reduces the If the time was very short the frost-
amount of heat delivered to the ex- bite is probably superficial. Other-
tremities. All clothing and equip- wise assume the injury to be deep
ment must be properly fitted and and therefore serious.
worn to avoid interference with (3) For treatment of superficial frostbite
the circulation. Tight fitting socks, in the field—
shoes and hand wear are especially (a) Cover the cheeks with warm hands
dangerous in very cold climates. until pain returns;
(d) Cold metal should not be touched
with the bare skin in extreme-low (b) Place uncovered superficially frost-
temperatures. To do so could mean bitten fingers under the opposing
loss of skin. armpits, next to the skin.
(e) Adequate clothing and shelter must (c) Place bared, superficially frostbit-
be provided during periods of in- ten feet under the clothing against
activity. the belly of a companion.
(f) The face, fingers, and toes should (d) Do not rewarm by such measures
be exercised from time to time to as massage, exposure to open fires,
keep them warm and to detect, any cold water soaks, rubbing with
numb or hard areas. The ears snow.
AGO 8641A
(e) Be prepared for pain when thaw- (2) Socks and boots should be cleaned and
ing occurs. dried at every opportunity, prefer-
(4) In treatment of deep frostbite (freez- ably daily.
ing injury) the following measures (3) The feet should be dried as soon as
must be taken: If freezing is believed possible after getting them wet. They
to be deep, do not attempt to treat it may be warmed with the hands. Foot
in the field. Get to a hospital or aid powder should be applied and dry
station by the fastest means possible. socks put on.
If transportation is available, avoid (4) If it becomes necessary to wear wet
walking. Protect the frozen part from boots and socks, the feet should be
additional injury but do not attempt exercised continually by wriggling
to thaw it out by rubbing, bending, the toes and bending the ankles.
massage. Do not rub with snow; do Tight boots should never be worn.
not place in either cold or warm wa- (5) In treating trenchfoot, the feet
ter; do not expose to hot air or open should be handled very gently. They
fires; do not use ointments or poul- should not be rubbed or massaged. If
tices. Thawing in the field increases necessary, they may be cleansed care-
pain and invites infection, greater fully with plain white soap and wa-
damage, and gangrene. There is less ter, dried, elevated, and allowed to
danger of walking on feet while remain exposed. While it is desirable
frozen than after thawing. Thawing to warm the patient, the feet should
may occur spontaneously, however, always be kept at room temperature.
during transportation to a medical The casualty should be carried and
facility. This cannot readily be avoid- not permitted to walk on damaged
ed since the body in general must be feet.
kept warm. c. Immersion Foot. Immersion foot is a form
b. Trenchfoot. Trenchfoot is the thermal in- of injury which follows prolonged immersion
jury sustained as a result of exposure to cold, of the feet in water not sufficiently cold to
short of freezing, in a damp or wet environ- cause freezing or frostbite. It has been ob-
ment. Arbitrarily, it is said to occur in the served after exposure in subtropical waters
temperature range between 32° F. and 50° F. also. Clinically and pathologically, it is indis-
Partial causes include immobility of the limbs tinguishable from trenchfoot which would be
(legs and feet down as in sitting or standing), expected, since its cause is essentially the same,
insufficient clothing, and constriction of parts lowering of the temperature of the part of the
of the body by boots, socks, and other gar- body involved. It is usually associated with de-
ments. This type of cold injury is almost iden- pendency (legs and feet down as in sitting or
tical with gradual frostbite, which might be standing) and immobility of the lower extrem-
expected, since the primary causes are the ities and with constriction of the limbs by
same except for differences in the degree of clothing and shoes. Other factors which play
cold. In the early stages of trenchfoot, feet more or less important roles are-body cool-
and toes are pale and feel cold, numb, and stiff. ing, as the result of wind; total immersion;
Walking becomes difficult. If preventive action and inadequate clothing (protection), sick-
is not taken at this stage, the feet will swell ness, and starvation. The incidence and sever-
and become painful. In extreme cases of trench- ity of immersion foot however, is more direct-
foot the flesh dies and amputation of the foot ly influenced by the other factors listed. The
or of the leg may be necessary. Because the treatment is the same as that given for trench-
early stages are not painful, individuals must foot.
be constantly alert to prevent the development
of trenchfoot. To prevent this condition— d. Total immersion. Immersion in near
(1) Feet should be kept dry by wearing freezing water for but a few minutes, or ex-
waterproof footgear and by keeping posure to severe dry cold while inadequately
the floor of shelters dry. dressed will cause total body cooling, including
AGO 8641A 47
a marked drop in the inner body (core) tem- available and if there is no known
peratures. For description and therapy see ap- or suspected abdominal injury.
pendix F. (3) The litter should be positioned so
e. Miscellaneous. The length of time that a that the patient is comfortable and
casualty may be exposed to the weather with- not apt to inhale vomitus.
out danger of cold injury varies directly with (4) The patient should be kept warm
the temperature and wind velocity. The lower with blankets and sleeping bags.
the temperature and the stronger the wind, (5) When the patient is conscious he
the sooner injury will occur. There is a great should be given warm soup, chocolate,
variation in individual reactions to cold. To coffee, or tea if there is no known or
give competent care to the injured in extreme suspected abdominal injury.
cold, the medical personnel must have heated
shelter in which to operate. Battle wounds in (6) The patient should receive medical
the cold are no different from those sustained attention as soon as possible.
in more temperate climates, and should be
treated in the same manner. Morale is helped 3-38. Sunburn
by the assurance that the sick and wounded An individual may get sunburned when the
can be rapidly evacuated from the battlefield temperature of the air is below freezing. On
to hospitals, and that for the nontransporta- snow, ice, and water, the sun’s rays reflect
ble cases requiring prompt lifesaving surgery, from all angles; in a valley the rays come from
hospitals with highly skilled surgical person- every direction. Sunlight reflected upward
nel are available adjacent to division clearing from the bright surfaces attacks man where
station level. the skin is very sensitive-around the lips,
nostrils, and eyelids. The exposure time which
3-37. Shock will result in a burn is reduced in the clear air
Shock is brought about by a reduction of of high altitudes. Sunburn cream and a chap-
the circulating blood volume within the body. stick should be carried in the pocket, and ap-
This can be caused by severe injuries, loss of plied to those parts of the face that are ex-
blood, pain, emotional disturbances, or any of posed to direct or reflected light. In mild
many factors. The normal reaction of the body weather protection of the neck and ears can
to severe cold, reduction of the volume of blood be improvised by draping a handkerchief over
circulating to extremities, is very similar to the back of the head which is held in place by
the reaction of the circulatory system to the the cap in the manner of a desert neckcloth.
condition of shock. Shock will usually develop Soap or shaving lotions with a high alcoholic
more rapidly and progress more deeply in ex- content should not be used because they re-
treme cold than in normal temperature. move natural oils that protect the skin from
the sun. If blistered, report to an aid station as
a. Signs of Shock. The signs of shock are soon as possible, as the blistered area, espe-
apprehension; sweating; pallor; rapid, faint cially lips, may become badly infected.
pulse; cold clammy skin; and thirst. If the pa-
tient is not given good first aid treatment im- 3-39. Snow Blindness
mediately the condition of shock may progress Snow blindness occurs when the sun is shin-
until the patient passes into unconsciousness ing brightly on an expanse of snow, and is due
and further into death. to the reflection of ultraviolet rays. It is par-
b. First Aid for Shock. ticularly likely to occur after a fall of new
snow, even when the rays of the sun are par-
(1) The injured person should be made tially obscured by alight mist or fog. The risk
as comfortable as possible. is also increased at high altitudes. In most
(2) Pain may be relieved by proper posi- cases, snow blindness is due to negligence or
tioning, good bandaging and splint- failure on the part of the soldier to use his
ing. Aspirin will also help, if it is sunglasses. Waiting for discomfort to develop
48 AGO 8641A
before putting on glasses is folly. A deep burn Med 269 should be used as references by these
of the eyes may already have occurred by the safety officers.
time any pain is felt. Putting on the glasses c. Generally there are no symptoms. With
then is essential to prevent further injury but mild poisoning, however, these signs may be
the damage has already been done. Symptoms present-headache, dizziness, yawning, weari-
of snow blindness area sensation of grit in the ness, nausea, and ringing in the ears. Later on,
eyes with pain in and over the eyes made worse the heart begins to flutter or throb. But the gas
by eyeball movement, watering, redness, head- may hit without any warning whatsoever. A
ache, and increased pain on exposure to light. soldier may not know anything is wrong until
First aid measures consist of blindfolding, his knees buckle. When this happens, he may
which stops the painful eye movement, or cov- not be able to walk or crawl. Unconsciousness
ering the eyes with a damp cloth, which ac- follows; then death. Men may be fatally poi-
complishes the same thing. Rest is desirable. soned as they sleep.
If further exposure to light is unavoidable the
eyes should be protected with dark bandages d. In a case of carbon monoxide poisoning,
or the darkest available glasses. The condition the victim must be moved into the fresh air at
heals in a few days without permanent damage once, but must be kept warm. In the winter,
once unprotected exposure to sunlight is fresh air means merely circulating air that is
stopped. free from gases. Exposure to outdoor cold
might cause collapse. If the only fresh air is
3-40. Constipation outdoors, the patient should be put into a sleep-
ing bag for warmth. A carbon monoxide victim
a. When operating under cold weather con- should never be exercised, because this will
ditions there is a general tendency for individ- further increase his requirements for oxygen.
uals to allow themselves to become constipated. If a gassed person stops breathing or breathes
This condition is brought about by the desire only in gasps, mouth-to-mouth resuscitation
to avoid the inconvenience and discomfort of should be started immediately. In the latter
relieving themselves under adverse conditions. case, the operator’s movements must be care-
This condition is also caused by changes in fully synchronized with the victim’s gasps.
eating habits and failure to drink a sufficient Breathing pure oxygen removes carbon monox-
amount of liquids. ide from the blood faster than does breathing
b. Constipation can usually be prevented by air and greatly hastens recovery. Carbon mon-
adjusting the normal eating and drinking hab- oxide is serious and a victim who survives it
its to fit the activities in which engaged, and must be kept absolutely quiet and warm for at
by not “putting off” the normal, natural, proc- least a day. Hot water bottles and hot pads are
esses of relieving the body of waste matter. helpful in maintaining body temperatures.
Medical personnel should be consulted if con-
stipation persists. Each individual must be ed- 3-42. Care of Casualties
ucated concerning the consequences of neglect- If any member of a group is injured, the
ing personal hygiene habits. most important course of action is to get him
to competent medical aid as soon as possible.
3-41. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning The casualty should be given first aid treat-
a. Whenever a stove, fire, gasoline heater, or ment, protected from the cold and shock ef -
internal combustion engine is used indoors fects, and evacuated to an aid station with a
there is danger of carbon monoxide poisoning. minimum of delay. He should be placed in a
A steady supply of fresh air in living and casualty bag, sleeping bag, or the best avail-
working quarters is vital. Carbon monoxide is able substitute. He should have warm drinking
a deadly gas, even in low concentration, and water or other hot drinks, except in the case
is particularly dangerous because it is odorless. of abdominal injury.
Warning: Once a tourniquet has been ap-
b. Units should appoint a qualified carbon plied, the wounded man should be examined by
monoxide safety officer. AR 386-55 and TB a medical officer as soon as possible.
AGO 8641A 49
If possible, the tourniquet should not be the fastest means of transport available. Sleds
loosened by anyone except a medical officer can be used if oversnow vehicles or air evacua-
who is prepared to stop the hemorrhage or tion facilities cannot be obtained. It may be
bleeding by other means and to administer necessary to use manhauled sleds to move the
other treatment as necessary. Repeated loosen- wounded a safe distance behind the frontlines
ing of the tourniquet by inexperienced person- before they can be transferred to faster means
ne is extremely dangerous, can result in con- of transport (fig. 3-19). Speed in evacuation
siderable loss of blood, and endanger the life is essential because of the combined effects of
of the patient. Halting of circulation to the severe cold and shock on the wounded.
extremities is an invitation to frostbite. If
morphine is to be administered, caution must 3-44. Body Parasites
be exercised to avoid overdosage.
a. General. Body parasites are very common
in the more populated cold regions because of
the crowded living conditions and shortage of
bathing and cleaning facilities. When in the
midst of a native population, or when occupy-
ing shelters which have been used before, in-
dividuals must inspect clothing and body each
night for parasites.
b. Means of Control. If clothing has become
infested with lice, the following methods of
removing them are recommended:
(1) While extreme cold does not kill lice,
it paralyzes them. The garments
should be hung in the cold; then
beaten and brushed. This will help
ZflQ O mostqq o rid the garments of lice, but not of
louse eggs.
3-43. Emergency Evacuation (2) An appropriate insecticide powder
Personnel who have been wounded should be can be used to free the body and
evacuated to the nearest medical facility by clothing of body parasites.

Section VI. BIVOUAC ROUTINE

3-45. Location of Bivouac Sites located so that it would be advantageous for


The selection of bivouac sites in northern future operations. If contact with the enemy
areas is all-important and requires careful con- is imminent, the bivouac should be located on
high ground; this, at times, is disregarded in
sideration. The problem of selection varies favor of cover and concealment, more suitable
with the tactical situation, weather conditions ground conditions, etc.
and terrain. Terrain hazards such as steep rock
faces concealed by snow, glaciers, crevasses and b. Cover and concealment against air and
avalanches are typical, especially in moun- ground observation is essential for the bivouac
tainous areas. Guides familiar with terrain area. Forested areas pose few problems in com-
peculiarities must be used to the greatest ex- parison to that area north of the treeline. Par-
tent during the troop movement. ticular attention must be given in selecting
a. If possible, the bivouac area should be areas in cold regions to insure that local cam-
tactically located in accordance with the ouflage materials are available.
principles of security and defense. It should be c. In the winter, protection from the wind is
50 AGO 8641A
a prime consideration. This is particularly true “float” may be built under the shelter (fig.
in areas of northern operations, where violent 3-21). In the absence of tree trunks, brush
local gales frequently occur. In wooded areas matting will serve the same purpose.
the wind has little effect on tentage or in- b. Areas to be used for extended periods of
dividuals. time require draining, clearing of existing
d. The condition of the ground is important creeks, digging of ditches around the shelter,
and, if possible, the bivouac should be located or preparing a water trench inside the shelter.
on hard, dry ground.
e. Construction materials play an important
part in the selection of a bivouac. When mak-
ing a reconnaissance for the area, such things
as the availability of firewood, water, snow
for snow shelters, boughs, etc., must reconsid-
ered.
3-46. Bivouac in Forests
a. Most forests in cold regions provide excel-
lent bivouac sites and should reutilized when-
ever possible. Forests provide many natural
materials such as boughs for insulation, fire- SuQ %—çj QO3 \ uost
wood, and camouflage construction materials.
They also provide excellent concealment
t \o.ç
against enemy air and ground observation. Co-
niferous (cone-bearing trees) provide better
protection from wind and better insulation ma-
terial and firewood than deciduous forests. Pine
and spruce forests, normally found on well
drained soil, offer the best hardstand for
shelter.
b. Tracks are visible in both summer and
winter. On dry ground, however, they nor-
mally are not as noticeable as on wet soil. Con-
sideration should be given to building dummy tsc 'i—v (i4i
positions for the purpose of misleading the
enemy (fig. 3-20). Track discipline must be
rigidly enforced in the bivouac area. Once 3-48. Bivouac in Open Terrain and on Ice
tracks are made, all movement within the a. Due to strong winds, drifting snow, and
areas should be restricted to those tracks. poor concealment, bivouac areas in the barren
tundra must be carefully chosen.
3-47. Bivouac on Marshy Ground b. Tents should be pitched where they can
a. In winter, when the ground is frozen, good be sheltered by natural windbreaks whenever
bivouac sites may be found in areas which possible. The windbreak may consist of de-
otherwise would not be usable. Some swampy pressions in the ground or pressure ridges on
areas may not freeze during the winter, be- the ice. A visual inspection will indicate the
cause of warm water springs or gases. They degree of drifting, direction of the prevailing
provide poor facilities for the bivouac site. If wind, and more suitable protected areas for
it becomes necessary to establish the bivouac locating the shelters. In areas where natural
on swampy ground, flooring for shelters must windfalls do not exist, snow walls may be con-
be constructed. If tree trunks are available, a structed to provide protection from winds and
AGO 8641A 51
enemy small arms fire, as well as concealment protected, camouflaged, and the personnel
from ground observation. In open areas with ready to fight. Only the minimum amount of
high winds, snow gathers rapidly on the lee time should be devoted to pitching and striking
side, making it necessary to clear the sides the shelters and to general housekeeping.
and tops of the tents periodically to prevent Bivouacking in a routine manner allows more
the weight of the drifting snow from collaps- time for daily movement, establishing an ef-
ing the tent. The entrance to the shelter should fective security system, and defense of the
face downwind from the prevailing wind. bivouac site. Finally, it allows more time for
This will prevent the snow from blocking the rest and to make preparations for the continu-
exit and cutting off the ventilation. ation of the operation.
c. When the tent is pitched on ice, holes b. Responsibilities of Unit Leader. On en-
are chopped where the tent pins are normally tering the bivouac site, the unit leader is re-
set. “Deadmen” are inserted in the holes at sponsible for—
right angles to the tent. The holes are then (1) Posting a security guard.
packed with snow or filled with water and left
to freeze. (2) Checking the bivouac site.
(3) Determining exact tent locations pro-
3-49. Bivouacs in Mountains viding the best natural shelter and
a. Mountainous terrain is characterized by camouflage.
strong turbulent winds, cold and general lack (4) Designating an area from which con-
of concealment above the timberline. The struction material and firewood will
wind overhead creates an extensive lee near be obtained.
the mountain. The overhead lee resembles the (5) Selection of a water point, or mark-
dry space behind waterfalls caused by water ing off the snow area to be utilized
having such speed that it shoots over the edge for water.
of the cliff and descends in a curve. An inland (6) Designating latrine and garbage dis-
wind blowing 50 miles an hour (43 kts) may posal sites.
not strike the ground for several kilometers
after passing the edge of a cliff or a very steep (7) Designating a site for weapon and
slope. While such a lee is an attractive bivouac ski racks. Temporary placement for
site from the standpoint of wind protection it weapons and equipment must be ar-
should be noted that such a lee area is often ranged until the bivouac has been es-
an area of maximum snow deposit. The re- tablished.
quirement to constantly dig out vehicles, walk- (8) Breaking a minimum number of
ways, and weapons positions may offset the trails between the tent site and area
windfree advantages of a lee site during snow- assigned for firewood and construc-
fall or snowblowing weather. tion material, water point, and la-
trine.
b. Cold air is heavier and frequently settles
in valleys. The point where the temperature (9) Maintaining camouflage and track
starts changing is low in summer and higher discipline at all times.
and more noticeable in winter. Therefore, in (10) Organization and assignments for
some instances it is better to establish a biv- the work details as follows:
ouac up the hillside above the valley floor and (a) Clearing and leveling the shelter
below the timberline, where applicable. Ava- sites. In winter the snow is dug to
lanche hazard areas must be carefully avoided. the ground level or in an emer-
gency, packed down by trampling
3-50. Establishing Bivouac with skis, snowshoes, or tracked
a. General. Setting up a bivouac is a routine vehicles.
based on SOP which enables the commander (b) Pitching tents (when used).
to control the bivouac area, have it always (c) Cutting, trimming, and hauling
52 AGO 8641A
trees and boughs for construction (19) Outlining and rehearsing the action
of improvised shelters and bough to be taken in the event of attack.
beds (when tents are not avail- (20) Assuring that necessary safety pre-
able). cautions are taken to eliminate or
(d) Construction of improvised shel- control any hazards that could result
ters best suited to the area con- in unnecessary accidental loss of men
cerned. and their equipment.
(e) Construction of windbreaks, if
necessary. 3-51. Shelter Discipline
(f) Building necessary weapon and ski a. When a shelter is finished, the first man
racks. Special care must be given entering it will arrange all equipment in the
to the protection of the weapons proper place. The stove, water can, firewood,
from the elements. tools, and rations are placed in the most con-
(g) Construction of field latrines and venient place by the door of the tent. In a
garbage disposal sites. snow shelter, a special storeroom may be dug
(h) Preparing a water point. for these items.
(i) Gathering and cutting a supply of b. In low temperatures, weapons should be
firewood. left outside on improvised weapon racks in
(j) During cold weather, situation per- order to avoid condensation. However, as a
mitting, starting fires and prepar- word of caution commanders must insure
ing hot drinks for all individuals. that weapons left outside are properly secured,
(k) Upon completion of shelter con- e.g., providing security guards or securing the
struction, starting a warm meal. weapons in an unheated shelter. When cold
(11) Maintaining and emphasizing clean- weapons are taken into heated shelters, con-
liness, tidiness, and teamwork. densation will form as the warm air comes in
contact with cold metal. This “sweating” will
(12) Upon completion of the bivouac, ar- continue for about one hour. If weapons are
ranging equipment within the out- brought into a warm shelter they should be
side of shelters. placed at floor level away from direct heat to
(13) Preparing defensive positions and minimize condensation. To avoid freezing of
breaking and marking a trail from moving parts, moisture must be removed and
the shelters to the positions. Lubrication Oil, Weapon (LOW) applied to
(14) Maintaining a duty roster for ex- the weapon before it is taken outside. If the
terior guards, fire guards, and similar situation requires that weapons be taken in-
assignments. side and later outside before they can be dried,
the working parts must be hand operated until
(15) Rotating individuals on all jobs on a the moisture is frozen and there is no danger
daily basis. of parts freezing together.
(16) Assigning specific sleeping areas for c. Before entering the shelter, hoarfrost
all individuals in accordance with and snow must be brushed off clothing and
the duty roster. equipment. This keeps the clothing dry and
(17) Upon establishing the bivouac, re- the shelter clean.
moving the exterior guard in case the
parent unit has taken over the secu- d. To live comfortably in a shelter is not an
rity of the area. easy art. Individuals usually are crowded and
must keep their equipment orderly and out of
(18) Inspecting the area, examining the the way of other occupants of the shelter. Un-
security, camouflage, cover, weapons, necessary running in and out of the shelter
skis, sleds, vehicles (if applicable), should be avoided whenever possible.
and the conditions of the men and
their equipment. e. The use of fire and lights in the shelter
AGO 8641A 53
must be carefully supervised. Security, fuel effect of continuously heated shelters is con-
economy, and the prevention of fire and ducive to fire. Shifts in wind and the accumu-
asphyxiation are essential. When wood is lation of frost or soot in the stovepipe lead to
available, it is burned in the stoves in place of backfiring of flaming fuel into the shelter. The
gasoline. Lamps must be extinguished before excessive spilling of fuel containers, lamps,
retiring for the night. All lamps and cooking and candles create additional hazards. The
stoves must be filled and lighted outdoors. A stamping of feet to shake off snow or frost
stand or bracket should be made for the lamps may cause stoves and small heating units to
or candles and they should be placed where spill and spread fire. The strict enforcement
they are least likely to be knocked over. Sparks of all regulations is necessary in order to avoid
on the tent or lean-to must be extinguished at fire hazards. No set rules can be given for
once. Smoking while in the sleeping bag is each occasion. Common sense in the handling
not permitted. of all kinds of fires, fuels, and flammable ma-
terials is essential; alert, wide-awake fire
f. As many tasks as possible should be ac- guards must be on duty in each shelter at all
complished before retiring in order to con- times when men are sleeping and a fire is
serve time in the morning. All eating utensils burning. Applicable technical manuals should
should be cleaned, snow melted, canteens or be consulted prior to operating tent stoves,
thermos bottles filled, and all weapons should cooking stoves or gasoline lanterns.
be checked.
d. A base made from green logs must be
g. Upon breaking the bivouac in the morn- placed under the stove if the snow has not
ing all personal equipment should be rolled, been shoveled away from the tent site. Fire
warm drinks and breakfast should be con- reflectors may be used not only to get more
sumed, and last-minute details accomplished warmth, but also to keep the fire burning
prior to resuming the march. evenly and to help avoid sparks.
3-52. Heat Discipline and Fire Prevention e. Care must be exercised when lighting the
Heat discipline presents a paramount prob- gasoline-type stove; it may flare up and either
lem during periods of extreme cold. damage the tent or set it on fire. All stovepipes
must be cleaned frequently. When using wood
a. Overheating the shelter is very common as fuel, cleaning must be done every day in
and can and should be avoided. It causes sweat- order to maintain a good draft and avoid fires
ing of individuals and increases the fire in the stovepipes. Stoves burning petroleum
hazard. fuels tend to accumulate more soot when op-
erated at low settings because of cooler pipe
b. There are many ways to save fuel. Cook- temperatures. It is better to turn the stove off
ing and heating may be combined. The melting in mild weather than to run it at low settings.
of snow and ice uses large amounts of fuel Detailed instructions for operating stoves are
and should be avoided when water from other covered in TM 10–735 (Yukon stove) and TM
sources is available. In cooking, liquid fuel is 10–725 (Stove M1941 ). Precautions against
used sparingly. Wood should be burned when forest and ground fires in summertime are ex-
available. In extreme cold it may be necessary tremely important. Coniferous forests are
to keep the fire burning throughout the night highly inflammable during the summer season.
in order to keep the men warm, especially Ground fires can burn for months in muskeg
when living in temporary shelters which pro- and are extremely hard to to put out. A
vide little heat. The drying of wet clothing fire ditch is always dug before lighting fire.
and the providing of hot drinks for combat A base of green wood, gravel, or rocks must
reliefs are also necessary throughout the night. be used under the fire; the fire must be made
c. Fire prevention during both summer and on high ground when the forest is dry. Be-
winter seasons is extremely important. The fore leaving the campsite, individuals must
combination of low humidity and the drying always be sure that the fire is completely out.
54 AGO 8641A
3-53. Drying Clothes where his relief is sleeping. Therefore, the
floorspace is occupied by the individuals in ac-
a. Keeping dry is important in low tem- cordance with the duty roster. The number
perature. At times it is impossible to avoid one man sleeps next to the door, number two
sweating. The drying of clothes and footgear man towards the rear. In this manner, start-
is therefore a necessity. Every opportunity ing from the door, the relief is easily located
must be used by each individual to dry his without waking up all occupants. The syste-
clothing. matic sleeping arrangement will also permit
b. When drying outside using an open fire, exit from the tent in an organized manner in
clothes should not be placed downwind from case of alert.
the fire, due to the sparks and smoke. Clothes
hung for drying should be frequently checked b. Ground insulation is most important.
and not left unattended. Clothing should never Often the occupants may have to improvise in-
be placed too close to the fire or stove in the sulation using all available material. Back-
shelter. Leather items are extremely vulner- boards, snowshoes, man-hauled sleds, and
able to extreme heat. Clothing being dried in empty cartons may be used. In timbered areas
the shelter is placed on drying lines. evergreen boughs are especially suitable. On
the tundra, dry lichen, grass, or shrubs pro-
c. The use of a “Christmas Tree” (fig. vide effective insulating material. To make a
3-22) for drying in the shelter is handy when bough bed, one single bed is constructed for
operating in a wooded area. Branches are cut all; the size varies with the number of persons,
off a dry or green tree which is then made to For improvised shelters, logs approximately 8
stand up in the shelter next to the center pole cm (3") in diameter are pegged or fitted around
so that it is in the air current. This offers an the bough or grass bed. This helps to keep the
excellent place for drying heavy items such as boughs in place, If material and time permit, a
boots and parkas. The Tent, 10-Man, Arctic, is 15 to 30 cm (6” to 12”) thick shingled bed made
also equipped with strong hooks at the inside from spruce, fir, or balsam boughs (fig. 3-23)
peak for suspending lighter weight clothing gives excellent insulation and provides a soft
for drying. mattress.
UrVLOY
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c. The tactical situation dicates whether or
i— 3fl \o o not sleeping bags are used. The amount of
clothing to be worn when sleeping on a bough
bed or in the sleeping bag can be best judged
3-54. Sleeping Arrangements in Bivouac by experience and will depend on temperature
a. When arranging the sleeping procedures and the tactical situation. As a minimum,
in a tent or improvised shelter, the position outer clothing is usually removed when the
of every man, especially the position of reliefs sleeping bag is used. The removed clothing is
for sentries, is planned. Each man must know placed beneath the individual for additional
AGO 8641A 55
insulation and instant availability. In an emer- thus melt the snow with less risk of cold injury
gency it may be necessary to dress in the dark. to hands or lips. A glass bottle or plastic bag
In the morning all ice and frost is removed can be used in place of an uninsulated canteen.
and the bag ventilated before rolling it up.
Time permitting, it is hung up by the strings 3-56. Bough and Firewood Areas
and thoroughly dried. The areas for cutting boughs and firewood
d. When sleeping in a heated tent without should be immediately designated when a biv-
a sleeping bag, boots are usually removed, sit- ouac site is selected.
uation permitting. The parka is used like a a. Bough Area. The area for cutting boughs
blanket. The rucksack makes a good pillow. for bedding as well as for construction of im-
The clothing is always loosened. provised shelters should be common to all in-
dividuals of the group. It is selected in a dense
3-55. Water Points and Snow Area area of woods in which springy, unfrozen
Locations boughs are available, and should not be too
During the winter it may be necessary to close to the bivouac site. It is advisable to use
obtain water by melting snow or ice. When sleds in hauling material to the shelter site.
such a source is utilized for drinking purposes, Due to the camouflage and track discipline,
an area should be set aside and restricted to only one well-concealed trail is used. When
this purpose only. A preferable site is one up- cutting boughs, the unnecessary felling of
wind from the bivouac and isolated from the trees should be avoided because trees lying on
latrine and garbage disposal areas. If such an the ground can be easily observed from the
area is not available, then snow should be air. Instead of felling trees, only the lower
gathered from the branches of trees or lightly branches should be used.
skimmed from a carefully isolated area adja- b. Firewood Area. It is advisable to have the
cent to the individual shelters. Water obtained firewood area nearby the area designated for
in this manner must be boiled for one minute bough cutting so that the same track can be
or chemically treated. Chemical sterilization of used. Dry, dead pine trees make the best fire-
water under freezing conditions requires a wood. If no dead trees are available, green
longer period because the disinfecting com- birch trees may be chopped; they possess ex-
pounds act with retarded efficiency under such cellent burning qualities even when frozen.
conditions. The time allotted for contact with The top parts of dead trees should be burned
purification tablets should be two to four times during the daytime, as they give off lighter
the normal period of one-half hour. Eating ice colored smoke. The lower part of the trunk
or snow is unsatisfactory and may result in has more resin and tar, and burns better, but
injury to lips or tongue. Contamination may makes more and much darker smoke.
also be a hazard. If no other water source is
available, as in a survival situation, snow can
be eaten but it must first be brought to the 3-57. Storage
melting point by holding it in the bare hand. Storage problems in winter are increased by
It may then be eaten slowly and in small snow, low temperatures, thaws, limited stor-
amounts. This is best done during periods of age space, and the increased problems of trans-
temporary heat excess, as during marching, or portation. Space in any shelter is limited. Only
while in the sleeping bag. The risk of frostbite items which are affected by cold, or which
to the hand must be considered and balanced must be immediately available, should be
against the need for fluids. Should some water stored inside. All other stores must be con-
be available in an uninsulated canteen during centrated, well marked, covered, and left out-
a survival situation, this should be warmed side. On the other hand, some perishables
under the clothing or in the sleeping bag. Then which are difficult to preserve in summer may
snow may be added to the canteen after each be kept during the winter months in a natural
drink to replace the water consumed. Body “deepfreeze” over an extended period of time.
heat stored in the slightly warmed water will In areas where permafrost exists, a hole can
56 AGO 8641A
be dug or blasted out and then covered with as empty cardboard boxes, tent or sled covers,
insulating material, such as boughs. A con- waterproof bags or ponchos can be utilized to
stant low temperature can thus be maintained. protect the weapons from rain, dust, and fall-
a. Rifle Stand and Hanging of Weapon. In ing or drifting snow. When weapons are hung
wooded terrain a weapon rack may be built outside on stacked skis, or suspended above
from poles placed in a horizontal position and the snow in some other manner, they are hung
covered with boughs (fig. 3-24). When boughs with the muzzle down to keep falling or blow-
are not available, various other materials such ing snow out of the barrel and working parts.

1'S.Q %— $\Q l3

b. Ski Racks and Stacking of Skis. Care of been secured between two growing trees
skis in the field is highly important because horizontal position (fig. 3–24). In open areas,
unit and individual mobility depends upon skis are simply stuck upright or stacked in
them. If left lying on the snow in the bivouac the snow as described in appendix C.
area the bindings and running surfaces will c. Sleds. Sleds are placed on their sides or
freeze and render the skis unusable for a long on end outside. If loaded sleds are left on the
period of time, or they may be entirely lost snow, sticks, poles, or branches are laid under
under drifting snow. Therefore, the skis and the runners to prevent them from freezing to
ski poles are placed on an improvised ski rack the snow. Heavy cargo sleds, 1-ton or larger,
made of one or two long poles which have must be placed on top of heavy poles or logs
TAGO 8641A 57
-1.

MIUE

2o-eocw

StSc3. rQ

due to the fact that sled runners remain hot colder regions is based on the same principles
after extensive usage and tend to settle into as in temperate climates. The extremes in cli-
the snow and become frozen, making move- mate and weather, however, make the problem
ment of the sled difficult the following day. more acute. The wastes that present constant
d. Vehicles. Vehicles are driven under a big and real problems are human excreta, gar-
tree or in lee of a shelter or snowdrift. Ve- bage, and trash.
hicles should be parked so the least amount of (1) In bivouac areas, pit or “cross-tree”
snow can get into the engines and parked on type latrines are used for the disposal
brush, logs, dry ground, or other surfaces not of human waste (fig. 3-25). One la-
liable to thaw from heat of tires and tracks trine will usually serve the needs of
and refreeze. individuals occupying 3 to 4 shelters,
e. Ammunition and Fuel. Ammunition and or a unit of platoon size. The latrine
fuel are stored separately outside. Ammuni- is placed downwind from the bivouac,
tion boxes should be stacked off the groung in but not so far from the shelters as
a dry place and covered with canvas or boughs. to encourage invididuals to break
In order to locate stacks if snow-covered, a sanitary discipline. Ration boxes or
pole should be erected near them. Boughs or similar material should be used to
poles are placed under fuel containers to pre- collect waste. A urinal, designated for
vent them from freezing to the snow. each shelter, should be located within
4 to 5 meters (4 to 5 yards) of the
3-58. Field Sanitation shelter. A windbreak of boughs, tar-
a. Waste Disposal. Field sanitation in the paulins, ponchos, or snow wall should
58 AGO 8641A
be constructed to protect the latrine (2) All trash and garbage dumps should
from the wind. be marked with appropriate signs to
warn troops who might occupy these
(2) When breaking bivouac, the human disposal sites at a later time.
waste that has accumulated in the
latrine will be burned or buried. All (3) Strict camouflage of all trash and
closed latrine sites, tactical situation garbage is essential. Dark trash on
permitting, will be clearly marked. the white snow is easily seen from
the air. Glittering tin cans or bottles
b. Trash and Garbage Disposal. may be seen by the enemy. Trash
(1) In winter the edible portion of food and garbage should be placed under
waste may be collected in receptacles any available cover and camouflaged
and disposed of by burial in the snow with snow, branches, or other ma-
at a safe distance from the bivouac. terials.
Every effort should be made to burn c. Rats and Mice. Rats and mice will be
the bulk of the trash and garbage. found in most of the habitable cold regions
During seasons and in locations of the earth. They are a definite menace to
where bears are found, all edible health and property and should be kept under
garbage should be burned to avoid strict control. Rat poisons or traps should be
attracting bears to campsites. used when available.

AGO 8641A 59
CHAPTER 4

SKIING AND SNOWSHOEING

Section I. INTRODUCTION
4-1. Purpose and Scope
By using snowshoes, individual mo-
a. The purpose of this chapter is to provide bility will be restored to a point ap-
information concerning— proximately equal to that of foot
(1) Techniques used in military skiing movement on hard ground. Skis, on
and snowshoeing. the other hand, provide individual mo-
(2) Application of these techniques to fa- bility usually exceeding that possible
cilitate the oversnow mobility of on foot.
troops engaged in military operations. b. Need for Certain Techniques.
b. This chapter also describes- (1) During cross-country marches and in
combat the soldier on skis or snow-
(1) Equipment available for military ski- shoes will be required to negotiate
ing and snowshoeing. various types of terrain conditions.
(2) Maintenance and care of that equip- He will be moving and operating in
ment. different weather and snow condi-
tions. Carrying a rucksack-and a wea-
4--2. General Considerations pon, he will be required to move in
a. The Need for Individual Mobility. forests, over open terrain, uphill and
(1) Warfare in snow-covered areas re- downhill, and often while pulling a
quires oversnow mobility off the sled.
roads. Well-trained ski and snowshoe (2) In order to execute his mission with
troops are a definite asset on the the least wasted effort, the soldier
snow-covered battlefield. In deep snow must apply the proper techniques of
(61 cm (2') or greater in depth) the skiing and snowshoeing required for
individual has almost no mobility the various conditions under which
without the aid of skis or snowshoes. he will operate.
Troops on skis attain mobility, are not c. Use of Oversnow Equipment to Achieve
roadbound, and are able to move cross- Mobility.
country over all types of snow- (1) The means available to the individual
covered terrain. They are ideally soldier for obtaining oversnow mo-
suited for reconnaissance, security bility are skis and snowshoes. When
missions, and deep penetration patrols operating in snow-covered terrain the
conducting unconventional type op- soldier must be equipped with either
erations. Aggressive action can be skis or snowshoes at all times. Using
carried out with advantage against skis, he is normally able to execute
the enemy flanks, rear, or communi- long marches with less effort and in
cation lines by lightly equipped, fast- less time than when using snowshoes.
moving troops on skis. Cross-country movement by soldiers
(2) Deep snow hinders movement on foot. on skis can be facilitated by towing
60 AGO 8641A
the skiers with tracked vehicles or gently rolling terrain while individu-
animals (skijoring). Snowshoes are als are carrying a rifle and loaded
more suitable than skis in confined rucksack.
areas, when working close to heavy 3W .Ot€3S I.Oq
weapons, or when training time is jooç (JGa JJULI 30GW 1-3 why 1i—3 why
limited. 0 2JJOM)
(2) Rates of movement over snow-covered uo auoit)
(1%)
tooc (0A6L 30GW (i) j— why ii—s why
terrain cannot be given in exact time ?UO1A2J10611J j— why s-si why
requirements. They vary in each situ- 2JcnIJ - i.Pv
I3I why a—si why
ation. However, as a guide, the fol- avfloLwt
- 2—12 why
lowing rates are listed. Rates are (q6h6uqpJt
given for movement over flat or 011 6LLB11)

Section II. SNOW AND TERRAIN

4-3. Snow Composition difficult. Another effect of wind is that of


Snowflakes are formed from water vapor, drifting the snow. The higher the wind ve-
at or below 32° F., without passing through locity and the lighter the snow, the greater
the liquid water state. Newly fallen snow the tendency to drift. All troop movement is
undergoes many alterations on the ground. As greatly affected by drifting snow and wind,
the snowmass on the ground packs and be- the effect depending on the relative direction
comes denser, the snowflakes consolidate and and velocity. In addition, as the wind, in-
the entrapped air is expelled. These changes creases, the effect of extreme cold (windchill
are caused by effects of temperature, humidity, effect) on the body may slow down or tempo-
sunlight and wind. rarily stop movement, possibly requiring troops
to take shelter. The snowdrifts created by wind
a. Temperature. In general, the lower the usually make the snow surface wavy, slowing
temperature, the drier the snow and the less down movement, especially in darkness.
consolidation. As the temperature rises, the
snow tends to compact more readily. Tempera- 4-4 Snow Characteristics
tures above freezing cause wet snow condi-
tions. Lowered night temperatures may re- The characteristics of snow which are of
freeze wet snow and form an icy crust on the greatest interest to the soldier are—
surface. a. Carrying Capacity. Generally, when the
b. Sunlight. In the springtime, sunlight may snow is packed hard, carrying capacity is
melt the surface of the snow even though the greater and movement is easier. Although the
air temperature is below freezing. When this carrying capacity of ice crust may be excellent,
occurs, dry powder snow is generally found movement generally is difficult because of its
in shaded areas and wet snow in sunlight slippery surface.
areas. Movement from sunlit areas into shaded b. Sliding Characteristics. All-important to
areas is difficult because the wet snow will the skier are the sliding characteristics of
freeze to skis and snowshoes. After sunset, snow. They vary greatly in different types of
however, wet snow usually refreezes and the snow and temperature variations and material-
ease of movement improves. ly increase or decrease the movement of the
c. Wind. Wind packs snow solidly. Wind- skier, according to the conditions that exist.
packed snow may become so hard that skiing c. Holding Capicity. The holding capacity
or even walking on it makes no appreciable of snow is its ability to act upon ski wax in
impression on its surface. Warm wind followed such a way that backslapping of the skis is
by freezing temperatures may create an icy, prevented without impairing the forward slid-
unbreakable crust on the snow. Under such ing capability. Holding capacity changes great-
conditions, skiing and snowshoeing are very ly with different types of snow, making it
AGO 8641A 61
necessary to have a variety of ski waxes avail- really found in these areas, as a rule,
able. is firmly packed by wind action and
will usually support a man on foot.
4-5. Effects of Snow and Terrain on When the snow has not been wind
Individual Movement packed and is still soft, mobility will
a. Skis or snowshoes are usually employed be increased by the use of skis or
in military operations when the depth of snow snowshoes.
is 30 cm (1') or more. This equipment is (2) Forested areas include vast conifer-
needed in deep snow conditions to provide the ous forests, dense brush, swamps, and
necessary oversnow mobility of the individual numerous lakes and rivers. Skiing
and the maneuverability of troops. and snowshoeing are relatively easy
b. Snow cover, together with the freezing on frozen, snow-covered rivers, lakes,
of waterways and swampy areas, changes the and swamps. In wooded areas conceal-
terrain noticeably. Generally, the snow covers ment is best, but movement is ham-
minor irregularities of the ground. Many ob- pered by vegetation and soft snow,
stacles such as rocks, ditches, and fences are therefore, greater skill is required in
eliminated or reduced. Lakes, streams, and skiing to avoid trees and other obsta-
muskeg, impassable during the summer, often cles. These disadvantages are reduced
afford the best routes of travel in the winter by careful selection of the best routes
when they are frozen and snowcovered. Dur- and following proper trailbreaking
ing breakup periods this advantage is reduced, procedures. Woods retard the melting
since the snow becomes slushy and the carry- of snow in spring often allowing ski-
ing capacity is poor. Even so, skiing or snow- ing after the open fields are clear of
shoeing, although slow, is often the only prac- snow. In autumn, the situation is re-
tical way to move during this period. The versed; the deeper snow is generally
drop in temperature at night will still freeze found in the open fields allowing
the snow surface, creating a good route for a skiing earlier than in wooded areas.
skier or snowshoer during the night and early (3) Mountains present special problems.
morning. Their varied and steep terrain place
additional demands upon the skill of
c. The effects of snow and terrain on indi- a skier and make movement on snow-
vidual movement vary in different areas. shoes or skis very difficult. Slopes
(1) The arctic tundra and vast subarctic which are easy to negotiate in sum-
plateaus are similar. They are char- mer often become difficult and dang-
acterized by large plains and gently erous to cross in winter because of
rolling terrain with scant vegetation deep snow cover which is prone to
where rocky ridges, scattered rock avalanche. Large drifts and snow
outcroppings, riverbanks, and cornices present other obstacles and
scrubby brush still create obstacles to dangers. Snow cover on glaciers ob-
individual movement, when encoun- scures crevasses and makes their
tered. The shallow snow cover nor- crossing hazardous (FM 31-72 ).

Section III. MILITARY SKIING


4-6. Advantages and Disadvantages laying troops require a high degree
a. Advantages. of oversnow, cross-country mobility
(1) In snow-covered terrain the weakest to reach these objectives. Units on
and the most vulnerable points of the skis are the most suitable troops to
enemy are usually the open flanks, be used for surprise attack on distant
rear areas, and the lines of communi- objectives.
cation. Attacking, defending, or de- (2) A trained individual or a unit on skis
62 AGO 8641A
can execute cross-country marches on niques so that his movement either uphill or
roadless, variable, and snow-covered downhill will not delay the movement of his
terrain more efficiently and quickly unit. When operating in mountainous areas,
than on snowshoes or on foot. the soldier must possess efficiency in both basic
(3) Skiing over snow-covered terrain by and advanced military ski techniques in order
properly trained troops is compara- to move easily and safely over steep and rough
tively less tiring than marching on terrain; the soldier must possess endurance
snowshoes or on foot. Sliding char- and must be in top physical condition.
acteristics obtained by the skier in- b. Training Time Required. To walk on
crease speed, mobility, and rate of snowshoes, one day of instruction is generally
march. sufficient. However, several days use of snow-
(4) Due to increased weight bearing sur- shoes during normal training will rapidly in-
face, a skier or a unit on skis is able crease proficiency. In a period of 2 weeks a
to cross frozen lakes and rivers when soldier can be taught enough ski techniques
the ice will not support a man on to enable him as an individual to negotiate
foot. flat or rolling terrain with greater speed than
(5) The use of oversnow vehicles and if he were on foot or snowshoes, but he will
other suitable means of towing troops not yet be able to operate effectively as a com-
further increases their mobility. bat skier within a unit. At least 8 weeks of
intensive training are needed in order to be-
b. Disadvantages. come a military skier capable of operating pro-
(1) Individuals require a considerable ficiently in any type of terrain. It should be
amount of training before becoming noted that the level of skiing skill developed
proficient in the use of skis for mil- by the soldier during any period of ski in-
itary purposes. struction is improved by participating in unit
(2) Certain terrain features, such as very training which is done on skis.
dense brush and windfall areas, ma-
terially decrease the rate of march 4-8. Ski Equipment
of a ski unit. a. Skis. Military skis were formerly issued
(3) Skis often require rewaxing for in 198 cm (61/2'), 213 cm (7') and 229 cm
changing snow conditions, which (7½') lengths. The standard issue ski is now
consumes time. Skis also do not pro- 213 cm long (7') ; however, until stocks are
vide good traction regardless of wax depleted the other length skis may be issued
used, for pulling loads. in lieu of the standard ski. The standard skis
are of laminated wood construction with
4-7. Training Objectives hickory tops and running surfaces. They are
a. General Considerations. A soldier on skis all terrain cross-country skis with steel edges
must be capable of moving under control across (fig. 4-l). The metal edges give better grip-
diversified, snow-covered terrain while carry- ping action in turns and on icy and hard
ing the arms and equipment necessary for packed snow which results in better control.
tactical operations. Since skis are often the All skis are painted white and have a hole in
most efficient means of transportation in the tip through which a cord can be threaded
winter warfare, the soldier should be so skilled when it is necessary to pull them as ski bundles
in their use that skiing becomes a natural or as an improvised sled.
method of movement. Since the skiing soldier b. Ski Binding, All Terrain. The binding
will utilize his skis for the greater portion of consists of a toeplate, toe straps, soleplate, heel
movement over snow-covered terrain, it is im- cup, quick-release fasteners and mounting
portant that he acquire good skiing technique hardware (fig. 4-2). The toe plate is aluminum;
in order to be able to move anywhere required the toe strap and heel cup are made of white
both quickly and with the least expenditure of rubber and three plies of dacron, the soleplate
energy. The soldier must develop these tech- is made of fiberglas. This binding will accom-
AGO 8641A 63
154-616 O - 94 - 3
stocks are depleted. Figure 4-3 illustrates the
different parts of the ski pole. In an emer-
gency, the poles can also be used for tent poles,
markers, or in the construction of emergency
litters.
d. Ski Repair Kit and Emergency Ski Tip.
This kit contains pliers, screwdriver, screws,
wire, drill, strips of steel edging, and leather
thongs for use in emergency repair of skis,
poles or bindings while in the field. An emer-
gency ski tip is also available. This can be
used to repair or replace broken ski tips and
allow the individual to continue the march un-
til replacement skis can be obtained. Ski repair
kits and emergency ski tips are usually issued
to units and are not intended for individual
issue. One ski repair kit per rifle platoon and
one emergency ski tip per squad is usually
sufficient.
e. Ski Waxes. Ski wax is used to obtain the
sliding and climbing characteristics necessary
for efficient military skiing. The waxing of
skis is covered in paragraph 4-10.
f. Ski Climbers. Climbers are strips of can-
vas with mohair secured to the running sur-
face, which are attached to the bottom of the
skis by means of straps (fig. 4-4). When at-
tached, the mohair material lies with the ends
pointing towards the heel of the skis. Forward
movement of the ski does not disturb the ma-
terial, thereby allowing the ski to slide. Back-
ward pressure, however, causes the material
to become roughened, preventing the skis from
backslapping. Climbers are used by troops to
make the climbing of steep slopes faster and
less tiring, providing the ascent is sufficiently
long to justify the time required to put them
on and take them off. They may also be used
to give more traction while pulling sleds, and
for descents where sliding is not desired.
s " 4-9. Preparation of Skis
a. General. Pine tar or ski lacquer is ap-
modate all types of cold weather footgear and is plied to the running surface of the skis to fill
easily put on and removed. The soleplate is the pores of the wood and to furnish a base so
flexible and allows free vertical movement of that the skis may be properly waxed. They
the heel which assists normal foot movement. are also applied to the running surface of the
c. Ski Poles. Nonadjustable tubular steel skis to prevent moisture from being absorbed
poles, 130 (51"), 137 (54") and 147 cm (58") by the wood. For military skiing, pine tar is
in length, are the standard item of issue, how- preferred as a base. If this is not available,
ever, the adjustable ski pole is being used until ski lacquer is a suitable substitute. They must
64 AGO 8641A
scraper and sandpaper. Caution
.-paQqaqb
should be exercised to insure that the
running surface of the ski is not
damaged. Old wax can also be re-
moved by the use of steel wool or a
rag moistened with a high flashpoint
solvent. Solvent should only be used
in an adequately ventilated working
area with no smoking or open flames.
If conditions are such that these ma-
terials are not available, heat can be
used to remove the wax.
s, —'• (2) Tarring procedure. After the ski has
been cleaned, a light coat of pine tar
is then applied with a soft brush or
be used separately since they do not mix to- a rag. If the pine tar is stiff, it should
gether. be heated slightly so it can be evenly
b. Application of Pine Tar or Ski Lacquer. distributed. Heat is then applied to
(1) Preparation of skis. The running sur- the running surface to cause penetra-
face must be clean to prepare the skis tion of the pine tar into the pores of
for pine-tarring or lacquering. If the the wood. The source of heat may be
ski has been used, the old base and a blowtorch (fig. 4-5), one burner
wax must be removed. The easiest stove, or an open fire (fig. 4-6). To
way to accomplish this is to use a obtain the best penetration, work
AGO 8641A 65
L

'—• cSQ.%

progressively on one section at a time room temperature for best results. At


rather than heating the whole surface least two separate coats should be ap-
of the ski. Care must be taken to plied, making certain that each one
avoid burning or scorching the wood is completely dry before the next one
by application of too much heat. It is applied. It is recommended that the
may be necessary to repeat this proce- surface be lightly sanded with fine
dure several times to obtain a suffi- sandpaper or steel wool, between
cient coating. Excess pine tar is re- coats. Care must be exercised not to
moved during the heating process by inhale toxic lacquer fumes. For pro-
means of a rag. When finished, the longed or repeated exposure to such
running surface of the ski should be fumes, unapproved respirator should
dry and not sticky to the touch. be worn. No smoking or open flames
(3) Lacquering procedure. After the ski should be permitted in or around the
has been cleaned, the surface is al- work area and adequate ventilation
lowed to dry thoroughly before apply- should be provided.
ing the lacquer. The lacquer is ap-
plied with a clean brush, rag, or 4-10. Waxing of Skis
sponge, starting at the tip and work- a. General. There are no standard ski waxes
ing towards the heel using smooth, available in the supply system therefore com-
even strokes in a continuous motion. mercial waxes must be procured and used. The
None of the lacquered areas should be purpose of ski wax is to provide the ski with
touched until the lacquer incomplete- necessary climbing and sliding qualities to pre-
ly dry. This requires several hours. vent backslip in various snow conditions. When
The application should be made at snow conditions and temperature change, the
66 AGO 8641A
wax to the holding and sliding cap-
abilities of the snow. For this reason
there are specific waxes to use in
cross-country skiing under different
snow surface conditions.
(a) Proper wax. When the soldier is
skiing on the level, or uphill, his
body weight gives maximum pres-
sure to the skis. The soft quality of
the wax allows the crystal structure
of the snow to penetrate the wax
under this pressure and thus keep
the ski from backslapping. When
the pressure is lifted and the ski
allowed to slide forward, the pene-
trating snow crystals will slide free
from the surface of the wax reduc-
ing friction. Continuous forward
motion, as in sliding, keeps the
crystals from penetrating the wax.
(b) Wax too soft. When the skis slide
poorly, the following condition gen-
erally exists: the snow crystals
have penetrated into the wax but
will not slide free. This causes clog-
ging of the snow on the running
surface and may eventually cause
ice to form. Under these conditions
the soldier will find that even vig-
orous sliding of the ski will not
break the snow loose from the wax
—'• ct osco.cr surface. Little or no forward slide
can be gained.
type and method of application of ski wax will (c) Wax too hard. When the skis slide
also differ. Before wax can be properly se- well, but backslip on the level and
lected and applied, the individual must learn when moving uphill, the following
to recognize the different types of snow con- condition exists: the snow crystals
ditions. It is also valuable to have some knowl- are not penetrating the wax. The
edge of how ski wax performs in relation to soldier will find he has excellent
snow. After snow has fallen on the ground, sliding when going downhill, but
its crystalline structure is continuously altered climbing uphill or skiing on level
by the effects of temperature, wind, and hu- ground is very exhausting because
midity. In very cold weather these changes of backslip. This is the primary
occur much more slowly than when tempera- deterrent to the use of “downhill”
ture is near 32° F. Therefore, the most im- waxes for cross-country skiing.
portant factor of waxing is the effect that (2) Classification of snow. Snow is classi-
temperature has on the character of the snow fied here into four general types. This
and its sliding qualities. classification is intended to assist the
soldier in snow identification, choice
b. Snow and its Effects on Wax. of wax, and its proper application
(1) The effects of snow crystals. It is im- under these different conditions.
portant to understand the relation of (a) Wet snow. This type of snow is
AGO 8641A 67
11..,

s%zn.Q •t—w 8 ob
mostly found during the spring, as well as in spring, when abnorm-
but it may also occur in the fall ally low temperatures occur. This
or late winter, particularly in re- snow is light and fluffy. It cannot
gions of moderate climate. This be compressed into a snowball un-
type of snow can be readily made less the snow is made moist by
into a heavy, solid snowball. In ex- holding it in the hand. At extreme-
treme conditions, wet snow will be- ly low temperatures, such as those
come slushy and contain a maxi- found in the far northern regions,
mum amount of water. this snow is like sand, and has very
(b) Moist snow. This type of snow is poor sliding qualities.
generally associated with early (d) New snow. This is snow which is
winter, but may also occur in mid- still falling or has recently fallen
winter during a sudden warmup on the ground, but has not been
period. This type of snow can be subject to changes due to the sun
made into a snowball, but will not or temperature variation. It can be
compress as readily or be as heavy wet, moist, or dry in nature.
as a wet snowball. It will have a c. Proper Selection and Application of
tendency to fall apart. Waxes. Cross-country ski waxes are formulated
(c) Dry snow. This type of snow is gen- to provide optimum sliding and climbing char-
erally associated with winter at its acteristics for various types of snow conditions.
height, but it can occur in late fall Each type is labeled with appropriate instruc-
68 AGO 8641A
tions on its intended use, i.e., wet, moist or used. Do not place the running sur-
dry snow conditions. Since the types of wax faces of skis on snow immediately
vary between manufacturers, no particular after waxing if heat is used or if wax-
type of wax can be prescribed for each classi- ing is done in a heated room or shelter
fication of snow; however, the instructions on as the snow may stick and freeze to
each container specifies the weather conditions the running surface. For the same
and type of snow where performance of the reason protect the running surfaces
wax is best. Proper application of all waxes against wind driven snow. To insure
is important to achieve desired results whether that wax is properly chosen and ap-
they be traction or sliding action. As a general plied, the skis should be tested before
rule, the wax that gives the best sliding sur- being used on an extended march.
face for all types of snow provides an excellent
base for application of other waxes. To pro-
vide traction, varying amounts, combinations,
and methods of application of other waxes are
used. When pulling a sled or carrying a heavy
load, thicker coats of wax may be required to
insure traction.
d. Waxing Procedure.
(1) Whenever possible, the waxing of
skis should be done before the march
when shelter and heat are available,
as the running surface of the ski
should be warm and dry to obtain
best results. When on the march, ski
wax should be carried in the pockets,
if possible, so that body heat will
keep the wax soft and easy to use.
If the skis need waxing during the
march, the running surfaces are
dried as much as possible by the use
of paper or dry mittens. Whenever
possible, old wax should be removed
before rewaxing skis particularly
when a different type of wax is being
used. Refer to paragraph 4-9 b (1) for
proper method for removing old wax.
(2) To apply, cover the running surface
with wax. Next, smooth the wax by
rubbing it with the hand, using the
heel of the palm or the fingers (fig.
4-7), a waxing cork, or a heated iron.
When heat is available, this process
can be made easier by warming the
wax that has been applied. It is norm-
ally best to work progressively on a _st $—\. ooI 1u oottQ o\ xir
section at a time, from the ski tip
towards the heel. If the waxing is
done in a shelter, or heat is used, the 4-11. Care of Ski Equipment
skis should be allowed to cool to out- a. General.
side air temperature before being (1) A broken ski or binding may put a
AGO 8641A 69
soldier at the mercy of the enemy and ditions are determined in the morn-
the elements and prevent him from ing or shortly prior to departure.
accomplishing his mission. If the After maintenance of skis is com-
soldier keeps his skis and equipment pleted, they should be placed in-
in good condition, he will find that doors, preferably in a ski rack (fig.
ski marches are easier and less tiring 4-8). Under field conditions, skis
and that he will not be the cause of are placed in an improvised ski
any unnecessary delays and halts by rack, planted upright in the snow
his unit. Care of ski equipment is the or stacked.
responsibility of the individual sol- (b) Bindings. Insure that all straps,
dier—he must check it before start- buckles, screws and rivets are pres-
ing out on a mission, during breaks, ent and in good condition. Replace
and when in bivouac. At least once a parts which are unserviceable. If
week the ski equipment should be necessary, readjust the fit of the
thoroughly checked by unit leaders. bindings.
During combat the inspection must (c) Poles. Check wrist straps, hand-
be done whenever the situation per- grips, shafts, baskets, and points to
mits. insure that they are in good con-
(2) Skis must be checked for proper base dition. Broken parts should be re-
of pine tar, evidence of possible warp- placed at the first opportunity.
ing and splitting, loss of camber, de- Temporary repairs can be made
fective edges, and broken steel edge with wire, cord, or tape.
sections or screws. At the same time (2) When snow cover is comparatively
bindings must be checked for worn thin, be careful not to damage the
straps, missing rivets and screws, and skis while skiing in rocky or stumpy
proper adjustment. Ski poles should terrain. Sometimes there is water
be checked to insure that wrist straps, under the snow cover on frozen rivers
handgrips, baskets, and points are or lakes. Try to cross them at a dry
firmly fastened and that no breakage place; make an improvised hasty
has occurred. bridge from trees or boughs, if time
b. Daily Care. permits. If the skis become wet dur-
(1) After each day's use, the skis and the ing a crossing of water, the ice which
skiing equipment should be checked forms on the skis must be removed
and necessary repairs made by the in- after reaching the bank. A long
dividual as follows: march or sudden change in tempera-
(a) Skis. Remove any snow or ice that ture may require rewaxing of skis
has frozen to the ski. This may be during the march. When skis are re-
done with heat. If heat is not avail- moved, do not leave them on the snow.
able, this can be done with a mit- It may stick and freeze on the run-
ten, wooden stick, or piece of metal. ning surface. Remove the snow from
Check the heels and tips of the skis the skis and stack them beside the ski
for cracks. Badly cracked skis must tracks or lean the skis against a tree.
be replaced, as they are weakened A ski stack can be built by each squad.
and break easily. At the same time, c. Repair.
check for and replace defective or (1) General. Repair of unserviceable ski
missing edges and screws. The con- equipment requires qualified person-
dition of ski bottoms is then nel with necessary tools and facili-
checked and, if needed, additional ties, Therefore, the soldier will only
pine tar or base wax is applied. The be permitted to make emergency re-
surface waxing for the next day’s pairs such as replacing bindings,
march is deferred until snow con- screws, and steel edges.
AGO 8641A
•YIUAtVI tu
.iwI1flWi

I __________________________________

io Itb o\
(2) Emergency repair. The repair of ski
equipment under field conditions is
emergency repair. In many cases
broken skis or worn out parts of ski
equipment must be replaced. To fa-
cilitate this, the following arrange-
ments are necessary:
(a) Every unit should have replace-
ment skis, bindings, and poles.
There should also be available, ski
repair kits, pine tar or lacquer, and
waxes.
(b) Every squad should have one emer-
gency ski tip (fig. 4-9 ) and each
platoon, one ski repair kit.
(c) Every man should have the follow-
ing in his possession at all times:
1. Emergency thong.
2. Pocketknife.
3. Piece of light wire (malleable) or
nylon cord.
(3) Combat repair. During combat, the
most suitable time for maintenance s%zn. t—' *U £ñ'
and repair of skis and ski equipment
is when the unit is in reserve. procedures will damage this equip-
d. Storage. ment, making it unserviceable.
(1) Proper storing of skis and skiing (2) When the skiing season is over, skis
equipment is most important , during and poles are turned in by the using
off seasons. Improper care in storage unit for storage. Before doing so, the
AGO 8641A 71
skis must be cleaned and old waxes
removed.
218Yb—
(3) Skis and poles are then checked
thoroughly. Those in good condition
are separated from those in need of 'c Ii
repair or salvage. Necessary repairs
are made. Ski bindings are not re-
moved. All skis should be pine-tarred II
or lacquered. If needed, skis are re-
painted. Skilled personnel are needed
for repairing skis and poles and for
escw-fl
preparing them for storage.
(4) In further preparation, the skis are LJ\
tied together by matching pairs ac-
cording to their factory markings not
unit markings. A piece of string or 11 't'
cord is used to tie the skis at their
tips and heels with running surfaces II\\
facing each other. A wooden block
(waxing cork may be used) is then
placed-between the skis at the metal
toe plates. The correct spread is about
6 to 8 cm (2” to 3“). After being
Mocked, the skis are stored in a verti-
cal position, with the tips down. If
1
the skis must be stored horizontally,
they should be supported at both ends ocvt *tI
and at the middle, with the end sup-
ports on the top side of the ski and the I
middle support beneath and arranged
so that tension is maintained on the
camber. Each ski should be supported
individually when stored horizontally.
The storage room should be dry with
V
an even temperature and good venti-
lation (fig. 4-10).
(5) After ski poles are checked, repaired,
and reconditioned, they should be
placed in the same storage area as
the skis.
4-12. Basic Movement
a. General. In moving on skis for the first ;
time, most beginners find that skis are awk-
ward to handle due to the difficulty of obtain-
ing the necessary balance and coordination. To
overcome these difficulties, the first instruc-
tional phase is devoted to step turns and walk-
ing on level ground in order to obtain the bal-
ance, correct body position, coordination, and
7LOW W6 bOJf1OU JIG LjJ1
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rhythm necessary in skiing. In addition, this —w 'tb ucur

72 AGO 8641A
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this reason, it is important that he practice
all techniques with and without the use of ski
poles. This is especially important in the begin-
ning stages of skiing, as practice without ski
poles will aid in learning proper transfer of
body weight, balance, timing, and control of
the skis.
4-13. Step Turn
a. Use. The step is the simplest means of
changing direction from a standing position.
It is particularly valuable in brushy and
wooded terrain (fig. 4-11).
b. Technique.
(1) From the standing position the right
(left) ski tip is raised, the ski is ro-
tated to the right (left) side, using
3 ya 4JJ6 jqç jq boJG uJj ponyç u jouaq the heel of the ski as a pivot.
4}J6 J6I çJJG GCJ6 i cowbJGsq (2) The ski is placed on the snow and
t——coJJu1,6q the body weight shifted onto it.
(3) The left (right) ski is moved along
basic movement is a means of forming the side the right (left) in the same man-
foundation for further instruction. Ski drill ner.
techniques are covered in appendix C. (4) Each pole is raised, moved, and placed
b. Skiing Without Poles. The soldier will with the corresponding ski (i.e., right
find that in performing duties, especially in ski, right pole).
combat, he will be required to ski either with (5) The same movement is repeated until
poles carried in one hand or without poles. For the desired direction is obtained.
AGO 8641A 73
(6) In confined areas it may be necessary
to use the tip of the ski instead of the
heel as a pivot point. In turning to
the right (left) the heel of the left
(right) ski is raised off the snow and
moved to the left of its original posi-
tion. Then the right (left) ski is
moved alongside the left (right) ski
and this sequence repeated until the
desired direction is achieved.
4-14. Kick Turn
a. Use. The kick turn is a method for re-
versing the direction of a skier when in a
standing position. It is used on both flat and
steep terrain. In combat, it is also useful to
conceal a change of direction in a ski track jp6 J4p4 jq 4JJ6II aMnU OLMøL uq p6 pe€j
(fig. 4-12). bc6q ii
ajq ;ib
uo sbbLox!wJ 6AGIJ !CJ' tp6
b. Technique.
(1) Beginning in the standing position
with skis level, the left (right ) pole
is placed alongside the left (right)
ski approximately 45 to 60 cm (18"
to 24") in front of the toe of the foot.
At the same time the right (left) pole
is placed alongside the right (left)
ski about 45 to 60 cm (18" to 24")
behind the heel of the foot.

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tarily perpendicular, its heel along-


side the tip of the left (right) ski.
LcJn1LGq OL l J(JCJ flLU çO JJ6 L1JJ BMIUJ1J To obtain sufficient momentum for
çpG L}J oO truq jq ;o p€ 1.601. 0 JJ4 0UJOflfll this movement, a preliminary back-
Ic —1w ward movement of the right (left)
ski should first be made.
(2) The right (left) leg is swung forward (3) The right (left) ski is then pivoted
and upward until the ski is momen- on its heel and lowered, pointing in
74 AGO 8641A
b. Technique.
(1) From the position of attention on
skis (para C-17) left unweighted ski
is slid flat over the surface of the
snow and straight forward as in
normal walking.
(2) At the same time, both knees are bent
and the body weight is gradually
shifted onto the advanced foot. The
heel of the rear foot is raised.
(3) The right ski pole is moved forward
and the basket is placed close to the
right ski, towards the tip, with its
shaft leaning to the front.
(4) A push to the rear with the pole is
made, assisting in the forward body
4 JJJIG J64 jq jçq uq L096q LOnUq 0 JI6 motion.
bof!oif bBLIJ6J ';i cp p; jq J3G4

(5) The above motion is repeated with


4jbSt '—1—COIJ1fl6q the right ski.
(6) On level ground the skis are kept flat
the opposite direction and parallel to and parallel.
the left (right) ski. (7) The skis are not lifted off the snow,
and the weight of the skis is carried
(4) The body weight is shifted to the by the snow.
right (left) ski, bringing the left
(right) ski and pole around and 4-16. One Step
alongside the right (left) ski in the a. General. The basic movement of the one
new direction, placing the ski pole in step is the walking step. Forward motion and
the snow. glide are increased when the skier applies more
(5) On a gentle slope the procedure is effort to his step. This added effort is obtained
the same, except the uphill ski should by a lunge coordinated with an increased push
be turned first. from the poles.
(6) On a steep slope, the skis are placed b. Use. The one step is the most widely used
horizontally across the slope and of all skiing steps. It is applied under all types
edged into the slope for necessary of snow conditions on level ground (fig. 4-
stability. The movements in executing 13).
the turn are the same as described
above except that both ski poles are c. Technique.
initially placed in the snow above the (1) The one step is started by a forward
skis and the downhill ski is turned lean of the body, with well bent knees
first. Then the uphill ski and pole are and ankles. The feet are kept flat and
brought around simultaneously to the body weight is on the right ski,
complete the turn. from which the initial movement
(lunge) is made.
4-15. The Walking Step (2) The left, unweighted ski is slid flat
a. Use. This is the simplest movement in and straight forward by a springing
skiing and is used as the basic step in forward motion from right ankle, knee, and
motion. In military skiing, its application is hip, straightening the body and
for situations where walking or climbing is transferring the weight to the left
necessary. On level ground, sliding action of sliding ski.
variable degrees can be obtained. (3) The springing motion (lunge) above,
AGO 8641A 75
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is completed by straightening the ing of the arm for added power.


right knee and pushing off from the When the push has been completed
right foot, thus completing the weight the arm is relaxed and brought for-
transfer. ward close to the body in preparation
(4) The body weight is kept on the slid- for the next poling action.
ing (left) ski and, as the glide nears (8) During the coordinated movement of
completion, the left knee and ankle poles and lunge, correct timing and
are bent in preparation for the next a long glide are emphasized. The
lunge. Meanwhile, the right leg is re- main power glide is obtained from
laxed and moves the ski forward in the lunge executed by each leg, the
preparation for the next step. As this poling action provides only a second-
leg reaches a position approximately ary source of momentum. All motions
alongside the left leg, the next step are rhythmic and fluent. Poles are
is made with the right ski by lunging used in a relaxed manner and the
from the left leg. pressure of pushing is allowed to come
(5) When using the poles, the lunge is on the wrist strap.
executed as above except that as the 4-17. Two Step and Three Step
left foot is slid forward the right ski
pole is swung straight to the front a. Use. This step is used to attain a longer
and placed towards the tip of the and faster glide on the level. It is also used
right ski or, when the right ski is as an aid through dips and over bumps.
slid forward, the left ski pole is b. Technique. The technique of the two step
brought forward. is a combination of an accelerated walking
(6) The slide is increased by a push with step and a one step. In the two step the push
the ski pole. The ski pole is leaned is obtained by the use of double poling (fig.
slightly to the front and the arms 4-14).
kept close to the body. (1) From a standing position with the
(7) The pushing action of the ski pole is knees slightly bent, a walking step is
increased progressively by the mus- made with the left ski to start the
cles of arms and shoulders. The push body in motion initially.
is finished off by a sharp straighten- (2) A lunge is then made from the left
76 AGO 8641A
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leg, in a continuous rhythmic motion, ing from alternate feet. The step is made in
to produce a long glide on the right the same manner as the two step except that
ski. two walking steps are taken before each lunge.
(3) While gliding on the right ski, the
left ski is brought slowly forward and 4-18. Variations and Applications of Ski
even with the other ski to complete Steps
the first two step and in preparation a. In long, cross-country movement, parti-
of the next two step. This action cularly when skiing with pack and rifle, it is
should be started before the momen- most important to apply techniques properly
tum of the glide has been lost. according to the terrain to insure that energy
(4) As the first step is made, both ski is spent wisely and conserved as much as possi-
poles are brought straight to the front ble. To this end, the individual must attempt
in a comfortable reach and set into to obtain as much glide as possible from his
the snow alongside the skis in coordi- skis during each step. Although lasting only
nation with the lunge of the second for a short moment, the glide will allow the
step. skier to rest temporarily. In addition, all
(5) The pushing action with the poles is movements must be made in a relaxed manner,
applied in the same manner as de- which necessitates continuous individual train-
scribed above in using one pole. As ing. The constant use of the same step is monot-
the poles leave the snow, they are onous and increases fatigue. To avoid this,
brought forward in a straight line in various steps are used temporarily. The same
preparation for the execution of the effect is also necessary in poling. In order to
next step. It is most important to time relax arm and shoulder muscles, a series of
this motion properly to coordinate steps may be made without poling. In the one
with the next lunge. step, for instance, the first two steps can be
c. Three Step. In addition to the two step, made without using the poles. Any additional
the three step may be used anytime when combination of steps and poling may be made
changing ski steps and when sliding is poor. at one’s discretion for the same reason, placing
The initial steps are intended to produce more more emphasis on leg rather than arm work,
initial power. It has an advantage over the or vice versa.
two step since it allows double poling and lung- b. In bumpy terrain, ski steps and poling
AGO 8641A 77
may be used individually or in various com- quick stop to avoid hitting an object.
binations to provide a strong pushoff to provide When properly used, it can be accom-
the skier with sufficient glide for a continuous plished without injury to the indi-
motion through a dip and over a bump. When vidual.
a series of bumps and dips is encountered, the (2) Unintentional falls. Unintentional
poling action is generally applied on the crest falls are undesirable and may cause
of the first bump in order to obtain sufficient serious injury. Other undesirable re-
momentum to reach the top of the next bump sultsof an unintentional fall are in-
in a continuous glide. A step supported by creased fatigue, possible frostbite, and
double poling may be applied when skiing holes in the snow which may cause
through the dip. There are other situations other skiers to fall. Factors which
where double poling may be applied to gain may contribute to unintentional falls
or increase forward motion of the ski without are poor skiing ability, lack of con-
taking a step. trol, snow conditions, fatigue, and ex-
cessive speeds.
4-19. Falling b. Technique of Falling.
a. General. In military skiing there are two (1) If a fall is imminent, an attempt is
types of falls, controlled and unintentional. made to relax, lower the body, and to
(1) Controlled falls. The controlled fall land sideways and to the rear.
has definite value. It can be used to (2) While falling, an attempt should be
avoid excessive speed or to avoid hit- made to stretch the body, to extend
ting obstacles if other means are not the arms and to keep the ski poles
possible. The controlled fall can be to the rear (fig. 4-15). Care should
done safely only at slow to moderate be taken to keep the knees from dig-
speeds. It is used to take cover quick- ging into the snow, as such action is
ly, assume a firing position or for a a major cause of injury.

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78 AGO 8641A
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(3) The impact of the fall should be ab- (2) If necessary, the pack and other re-
sorbed by the hips or buttocks. strictive loads are removed.
(4) The unintentional fall is avoided as (3) Skis are untangled and brought paral-
much as possibie. It is often prevented lel, feet together. Knees are pulled up
by the correction of a faulty ski or to bring the skis close to the body.
body position. The body is then moved forward and
(5) Landing directly on a knee or hand raised, pushing with the pole if as-
must be avoided since the resulting sistance is needed.
blow may cause serious injury. This (4) To use the ski poles, both hands are
is especially serious in heavy wet first removed from the straps. The
snow or breakable crust because the poles are then placed together with
extended arm or knee may penetrate baskets in the snow slightly to the
and be locked firmly in place before rear, grasped with one hand above
the body has lost momentum. the basket, palm facing downward,
(6) Although falling or “sitting down” and with the other hand close to the
with the skis facing downhill is the top, palm facing upward.
preferred method, occasionally a fall (5) The procedure for recovery from a
“over the tips” cannot be avoided. The fall on a slope is the same except that
important thing to remember is RE- the skis are placed below the body
LAX. and perpendicular (at right angles)
to the fall line. To obtain this posi-
c. Recovery. tion it may be necessary to roll onto
(1) To recover from a fall, the skier the back, lifting the skis in the air
must first figure out what to do before and then in the proper position. Poles
attempting to rise. A little planning are then used as described on the up-
will save time and energy. hill side (fig. 4-15).
AGO 8641A 79
4-20. Straight Uphill Climbing weight placed upon it. The upper ski
a. Use. Straight uphill climbing is a method pole is moved at the same time and
of ascending gentle and moderate slopes. placed above and alongside this ski.
b. Technique.
(1) Take the first step as in walking the
body leaning forward with knees well
bent.
(2) On gentle slopes, slide the skis for-
ward without lifting them from the
snow. On steeper slopes, more knee
bend is required which causes a trans-
fer of body weight. It may become
necessary to lift the ski as the step
is made, and to place it with a stampi-
ng action upon the snow. This will
give the ski wax better holding quali-
ties because it will not break down
the snow crystals by first sliding over
them.
(3) Use the ski poles to assist the body
in its uphill movement and to mini-
mize backslip.
(4) The degree of slope which may be
ascended using this method is limited
by the holding characteristics of the
wax used. With repeated backslapping
of the skis, the slope should be tra-
versed thereby decreasing the angle
of climb, or a different method of 5t.Q •
climbing should be used.
The lower ski is then moved up as
4-21. Sidestep close as possible to the uphill ski,
a. Use. The sidestep is an effective method while the skier is supported by a push
of climbing a short, steep slope, where space on the lower pole. This pole is then
is confined; it may be the only practical means brought up and placed alongside the
of ascending slopes. It is also useful for step- lower ski. This completes one cycle
ping sideways over logs, stumps, and other of the sidestep. Merely repeat until
obstacles. the desired elevation is reached.
b. Technique.
4-22. Uphill Traverse
(1) The skis are placed together and per-
pendicular (at right angles) to the a. Use. This method of climbing is used
slope (fall line). To prevent slipping when the slope becomes too steep for going
sideways, the uphill edges of both skis straight uphill. Although a traverse generally
are forced into the snow by pushing involves a zigzag route, it will often be the
both knees forward and toward the least tiring method of ascending, thereby con-
slope. Avoid leaning into the slope. serving time and energy.
Initially, the weight of the body is b. Technique.
placed on the lower ski. (1) An angle of ascent is selected which
(2) The uphill is lifted in a sideways step will allow climbing without backslip.
up the slope (fig. 4-16) and the body (2) The skis are edged into the slope on
80 AGO 8641A
each step with the ski poles used as
in straight uphill climbing.
(8) In changing the direction of ascent
a kick turn or a herringbone turn,
(para 4-24d) can be utilized. Long
traverses should be used whenever
possible, since elevation is gained
more effectively and with less expen-
diture of energy in this manner.
4-23. Sidestep Traverse
a. Use. This step is a combination of a side-
step and the uphill traverse. It allows greater
vertical climb in each traverse.
b. Technique.
(1) The movement is the same as in the
uphill traverse, except the ski is
raised slightly and placed uphill as it
is brought forward with each step.
(2) The skis are kept parallel and edged,
as in the sidestep.
(3) The ski poles are moved in the same
sequence as in the sidestep. I .IJ4UpOUG

4-24. Herringbone
a. Use. The herringbone is used to climb
short, moderate, or steep slopes. It provides
a quicker ascent than the sidestep. It is more
tiring and should be used only for relatively
short ascents.
b. Technique.
(1) The body is faced uphill with skis
spread to form a wide V. This is ob-
tained by spreading both ski tips out-
ward. The skis are edged sharply in-
ward, to prevent backslip, by bending
the knees forward and inward (fig.
4-17).
(2) The first step is made by placing the
weight on one ski, raising the other
slightly above the snow and moving
it forward and upward. This ski is
then placed in the snow, edged in-
ward, and the body weight trans-
ferred to it. The other ski is then
moved in the same manner and
placed slightly ahead. H'1 pGJJ1JJpOU6
(3) The ski poles are used in the same
manner as the sidestep, except they asbI.t.Q t—h• -!Q3..flS%9O3tS

are alternately placed to the rear of ttoq* o\ nc)uw%


AGO 8641A 81
the body and to the outside of each vides the individual with the balance which
ski to act as a brace and to aid in he must have before he can effectively descend
the climb. a slope or learn more advanced techniques. Al-
though it is the fastest means of descending,
c. Half-Herringbone. speed must be kept within the capabilities of
(1) Use. The half-herringbone is a varia- the skier (fig. 4-18).
tion of the herringbone technique and
is used to aid in preventing backslip
on gentle to moderate slopes in both
straight uphill climbing and travers-
ing (fig. 4-17).
(2) Technique. The half-herringbone is
executed with one ski in the herring-
bone position, the other pointing in
the direction of movement. The poles
rrL
are used for support to prevent the
ski pointed uphill from backslapping
while the other ski is advanced. The
downward angle and edging of this
ski is increased with the steepness of ftt3S•.
the slope ascended.
d. Herringbone Turn. b. Technique.
(1) Use. The herringbone turn is a (1) In a normal standing position with
method of changing direction while skis flat and parallel, one ski is ad-
traversing a slope, while climbing, or vanced 10 to 15 cm (4" to 6").
when in confined areas where a kick
turn may be difficult to use. It is also (2) Body weight is evenly distributed on
used to change direction from a her- both skis. The knees are bent and
ringbone position. pushed forward from the ankles, keep-
ing the heels flat on the skis.
(2) Technique. From a traversing posi-
tion the upper ski is moved first in (3) The body is leaned slightly forward
the desired direction, using its heel in a relaxed and natural upright po-
as a pivot point. This ski is then sition, head up, knees and ankles
placed into the snow, as in a herring- flexed without bending the body at
bone step, with the full body weight the waist to the front.
on it. The other ski is moved up in (4) Ski poles are held pointing to the rear
the same way and placed into the with baskets above the snow. The
snow. This brings the skier into a arms are bent slightly at the elbows
herringbone position. Both poles are and held close to the body with hands
held to the rear to brace the body to the front.
during this movement. This cycle is (5) Body and arms are kept relaxed.
repeated until the lower ski has Knees are kept supple to act as shock
reached the desired direction. The up- absorbers. The skier must be alert at
per ski is brought parallel with the all times.
lower ski into a traversing position
again, completing the herringbone 4-26. Downhill Traverse
turn. a. Use. This is the method most commonly
used in descent; either used by itself or in
4-25. Straight Downhill Running combination with other techniques. An indi-
a. Use. Straight downhill running is the first vidual who has learned the techniques and has
technique learned in skiing downhill. It pro- chosen a gradual route of descent can, in com-
82 AGO 8641A
bination with a kick turn, travel over a great
variety of terrain (fig. 4-19).

bit 't— 14.U•

b. Technique.
(1) The basic position is that of straight
downhill running, except that the up-
hill shoulder and ski is always slightly
advanced and most of the weight is
on the lower ski.
(2) Stand directly over the skis and avoid 't—w osboi
leaning into the slope. Both skis be-
ing edged into the slope.
forward in the direction of the ski
(3) If more edging is needed, it is con- tips, causing the skis to be edged
trolled by knee and ankle action, and slightly inward. The heels are kept
is kept even and constant. constantly on the skis while con-
(4) The ski poles are held as in the tinuous outward heel pressure upon
straight downhill positions. the skis is applied.
4-27. Snowplow (c) The upper part of the body and the
ski poles are held as in the straight
a. Use. The snowplow is a means for con- downhill running position.
trolling and slowing down forward motion in (d) To increase the braking action,
all types of terrain. In gentle or moderate ter- the skis are moved into a wider V
rain it can be used for-stopping. The snowplow and edged more.
uses fundamental positions which are employed
for furthering other skiing techniques (fig. 4- (2) Half snowplow.
20). (a) When only one ski is brought into
snowplow position, this is referred
b. Techniques. to as a half snowplow. The half
(1) From straight downhill running. snowplow is used in confined areas
(a) To move into a snowplow, both and in traversing where a full
heels are pushed outward evenly, snowplow is impractical for brak-
keeping the ski tips even and close ing action. It is also used in con-
together, forcing the skis to form junction with basic and advanced
a wide V. turns.
(b) The body weight is kept even on (b) This motion is executed by pushing
both skis. The knees are bent well only one ski outward in the snow-
AGO 8641A 83
plow position described above. fined areas where ability to control descent is
Braking action is controlled by the limited by snow conditions, terrain features,
degree of weight placed on this ski or obstacles. Two different methods are used
and the amount of edging applied. (fig. 4-22).
It is important that the ski be edged
to a pronounced degree on the in-
side to eliminate the possibility of
“catching” an outside edge.
(3) The snowplow while traversing down-
hill.
(a) To move into a snowplow from a
downhill traverse, the body weight
is shifted momentarily to the up-
hill ski. The lower ski is then moved
downhill into a half snowplow po-
sition by dropping the tail and
keeping the ski tips in the same
relative positions and edging slight-
ly. The body weight is then trans-
ferred back onto this lower ski. Ad-
ditional braking action can be ob-
tained by increasing the edging of
this ski and placing more weight
on it. To complete the snowplow,
the upper ski is flattened and push-
ed uphill in full V (fig. 4-21).
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S3 U O$M$ U4.W
U *ostbom

(b) If it is desired to continue travers-


ing in a snowplow, most of the
weight is kept on the lower ski.
Braking action is increased by a
wider spread of the skis and in-
creased edging of both skis.
4-28. Ski Pole Riding S 0" qoMupJJ ILA6LB6
a. Use. Ski pole riding is a braking method *' 'au bo qr%•
which is sometimes necessary to use in con-
84 AGO 8641A
b. Technique. (1) A downhill traverse position is as-
(1) Poles are kept together and to the sumed. The edging of both skis is
rear and held between the legs for decreased by bending both knees well
vertical descents. forward and slightly outward. This
(a) From a straight downhill running minimizes the holding power of both
position the lateral spread of the ski edges so that gravity will cause
skis is increased and both hands the skier to slide sideways down a
are removed from wrist straps. hill (fig. 4-23).
Both poles are held together and
placed to the rear between the legs
and the heels of the skis.
(b) The body is placed in a squatting
position with the weight over the
skis and one hand grasping the
pole handles in front of the body
with the palm facing upward, while
the other hand is placed to the rear,
grasping the shafts above the bas-
kets, palm facing down.
(c) Control of descent is obtained by
applying the required pressure on
the ski poles to force the baskets
I -A

into the snow.


(d) The braking action may be in-
creased by using the half snow-
plow or snowplow position.
(2) Poles together and on either side of
the body for traversing.
(a) From a downhill traversing posi-
tion both hands are removed from
wrist straps and the poles are held (2) Care must be taken that the weight
together on the uphill side. is kept well centered on the skis and
(b) The hand on the uphill side grasps that the lower ski pole is not placed
both pole shafts near the baskets in the snow during the sliding action.
with palm facing down and the The uphill pole may be used to initiate
other hand is held near the pole the sideslipping action and for bal-
handles, palm facing upward. ance. Avoid the tendency to lean on
(c) The uphill arm is braced tightly the uphill ski pole which will hinder
against the hips to increase the the skier’s ability to maintain a good
braking action. sideslipping body position.
4-29. Sideslipping (3) By shifting the body weight in front
of the center of the skis while side-
a. Use. Sideslipping is a braking method slipping, the tips will drop toward
used in descending slopes at all speeds. It is the fall line; by bringing the weight
especially useful in confined areas and in steep to the rear, the heels of the skis will
terrain where the snowplow or pole riding is move toward the fall line. This is a
impractical. It is the least tiring method of means of correcting or controlling the
braking. In addition, it employs a sliding ac- angle of descent during the sideslip
tion which is characteristic in advanced skiing (fig. 4-24).
techniques. (4) The speed of descent is controlled by
b. Technique. the degree of edging applied to the
AGO 8641A
\\ç b. Techniques.
(1) Before turning, lead with the ski
Ii which corresponds with the direction
of the turn, i.e., right ski ahead when
turning to the right.
\____ t(( 1 (2) In turning to the right the weight is
1' placed upon the left ski, which is then
edged to the right. The unweighted

-.-----—-.%-' —--=--.=.
right ski is then raised and placed on
the snow in the new direction. The
weight is transferred to this ski by
moving the body in the new direction
while pushing off from the left ski.
The unweighted left ski is then lifted
off the snow, and placed close to the
right ski to complete the turn. Comp-
lete transfer of body weight is es-
sential, and the movements must
"I,, follow smoothly and almost simul-
taneously. The ski poles are held to
the rear (fig. 4-25). The higher the
speed, the more the center of gravity
is lowered by bending the knees and
ankles. This adds stability and aids
in keeping up with the turn.
— k

skis. To stop sideslipping, the edging


is gradually increased by pressing the
knees forward and toward the slope.
(5) In adverse terrain and snow condi-
tions the aid of both ski poles may be
used on the uphill side while side-
slipping. The poles are used in the ItSs lSt atoow
same manner as in pole riding on a
traverse. This method adds a third (3) If desired, the steps can be continued
point of suspension and braking ac- as long as the skier is in forward mo-
tion. tion and until the desired direction
(6) At all times during sideslipping, deli- is obtained.
cate control of knee and ankle action
is important to prevent the downhill c. Variation.
edges from “catching.” (1) Use. A variation of the step turn in
motion is the skating step. It is used
4-30. Step Turn in Motion to accelerate forward motion on level
a. Use. This method of changing direction ground or gentle slopes and is a useful
while in motion is useful at slow speeds in all aid in developing balance, weight
snow and terrain conditions. It is particularly shifting, and coordination. Basically,
useful in adverse snow conditions and in con- the movements of shifting body
fined areas. weight from one ski to the other are
AGO 8641A
the same as in the step turn in mo- onto and over the right ski (note
tion except that direction is not that this ski is already pointed to
changed and the skis are edged in- the left) by a rotation of the body
ward on each pushoff. to the right and by a pronounced
(2) Technique. bend of the right knee to drop all
(a) From a straight downhill position body weight onto the right ski.
body weight is placed upon either This transfer of body weight initi-
ski and knee and ankle bend is ates the turning action.
stressed: (b) As the turn progresses, the body
(b) The other ski is lifted above the is not allowed to rotate beyond the
new direction of travel, i.e., face
snow with the tip pointed slightly straight ahead, not uphill. The left
outward. knee is kept well bent with this ski
(c) The weighted ski is edged inward flat and unweighted throughout the
as the body is pushed off at a slight turn.
angle to the front, i.e., in the direc- (c) Ski tips remain even and the V-
tion the lifted ski is pointed. angle of the skis constant. Avoid
(d) The lifted ski is moved to the front, leaning into the slope. Ski poles are
placed flat on the snow and weight carried as in the snowplow posi-
is shifted to it. tion. Care must be exercised to
(e) The unweighted ski is lifted from keep them pointed to the rear as
the snow and brought to the front the body is rotated.
near the weighted ski in prepara- (d) As the turn is completed the body
tion for the next step. These push- weight is either placed evenly on
ing steps are alternated left and both skis to continue in a snow-
right. plow or gradually transferred to
(f) A strong pushoff should be made the left ski to start a turn to the
with each step to lengthen the right.
glide and gain acceleration. Knee (2) From downhill traverse.
and ankle bend should be stressed
with each step. (a) In making a turn while traversing,
the snowplow position is assumed
(g) The step can be aided by double as described in paragraph 4-27 b
poling, especially to gain initial (3) (a). The edging of the lower
momentum. ski is decreased and the body
leaned forward and both ski tips
4-31. Snowplow Turn allowed to drop into the fall line
a. Use. The snowplow turn is efficient for in order to bring the skier into the
use at slow speeds, especially when carrying fall line in preparation for the
a pack and rifle. Because the snowplow position turn, as described above. As the
is retained, this turn enables the individual tips come downhill the snowplow
to maintain good control. In this turn, funda- position must be maintained by a
mental body positions and movements are holding push on the tails. The turn
used which are an important part of advanced should be continued until the skier
turns. has obtained the desired angle of
b. Technique (fig. 4-26). descent (fig. 4-27) . As the tips pass
the fall line, body weight must be
(1) Straight down the slope. transferred to the downhill ski to
(a) In executing a snowplow turn to complete the turn.
the LEFT while snowplowing di- (b) After the snowplow turn has been
rectly down a slope, the body completed and it is desired to con-
weight is transferred smoothly tinue with both skis together, as
AGO 8641A 87
ally shifted over and onto the other
ski in executing a snowplow turn as
described above.

4-32. Advanced Turns


The advanced turns used in military skiing
are the christiania turns. These are applied at
all speeds to change directions, to reduce speed,
or to stop. These are the most advanced turns
taught in military skiing and are executed
with the basic motions already learned, such
as forward lean, edge control, and body rota-
it tion. The application of these turns may be
limited by terrain and snow conditions, as well
as the degree of proficiency attained and the
load carried by the individual soldier. The
christiania turns are started from a variety of
positions, but all are completed in the same
manner (fig, 4-28).
4-33. Uphill Christiania
The uphill christiania is used to turn uphill,
to reduce speed and to stop. It also forms the
basic movement which is used in completing
other christiania turns.
•6uI a. In preparing for the uphill christiania
during a downhill traverse, the upper shoulder
in the downhill traverse, the body is brought well forward in order to increase
weight is kept on the lower ski the body rotation that will, be applied during
while the upper unweighted ski is the turn.
brought parallel with it into a b. The turning action of the skis is started
traversing position (fig. 4-27). by decreasing the amount of edging and, at
This turn is also known as stem the same time rotating the lower shoulder and
turn. hip forward in the direction of the turn. For-
(3) Variation. To make a snowplow turn ward lean of the body and knee bend are in-
from a traversing downhill position creased and the upper ski leads throughout the
in variable snow conditions, and when turn (1, fig. 4-28).
skiing with a pack, it is advantageous c. During the turn, both skis are controlled
to make the half snowplow with the by gradually edging them into the slope. The
uphill ski. In this method the body weight is directly over the skis. Avoid leaning
weight remains on the lower ski. The into the slope.
upper, unweighted ski is moved into
a half snowplow, kept flat, and the d. Forward lean and body rotation are in-
tips of both skis even. The edging of creased and continued as the turn progresses.
the lower ski is decreased, knees bent Forward speed will gradually decrease, per-
more, and the body leaned further mitting the skier the choice of continuing in a
forward to bring the skier into the new direction or coming to a stop.
fall line. In reaching the fall line, e. Care must be exercised so that the ski
both skis are brought into a full snow- poles are not allowed to swing to the front
plow and the body weight is gradu- during the rotation of the body.
AGO 8641A
88
;q i

$t_ —• oscboit st tç ;csu boor


f. This turn can be made from any angle used on turns made downhill while traversing
across the slope to and including the fall line. at greater speeds than employed in the basic
turns. For this reason the turn looks complic-
g. From a fall line the turn can be made in ated to the student. Basically, it is a com-
either direction. In preparation, the ski cor- bination of the snowplow turn and the uphill
responding with the direction of turn is ad- christiania. The basic techniques of the snow-
vanced (i.e., left ski leads for a left turn) and plow turn made from a traverse position are
more of the body weight placed on the other also used here to reach the fall line. The uphill
ski. Emphasis is given to body rotation and christiania is then applied to either change
knee bend to initiate the turning action of the direction or to stop. In combining these methods
skis. the speed must be greater, the body weight
h. To assist the turning action, a down-up shifted more rapidly, and the spread of the
motion can be used in this turn. As the turning skis in the snowplow position at a narrower
action is stated as in b above, the body is angle. Using the snowplow christiania it is
lowered and returned to normal as the turn is possible to link a number of turns together to
completed. control speed in a continuous descent. A break-
down of the technique is as follows:
(1) In making a downhill turn to the left
4-34. Snowplow Christiania from a downhill traverse, the body
a. Technique. The snowplow christiania, weight is shifted momentarily to the
also referred to as the stem christiania, is uphill ski. The lower ski is then
AGO 8641A 89
(3) AS the fall line is reached, the un-
weighted left ski is brought slightly
forward and parallel with the right
ski. The turn is then completed as in
the uphill christiania (2, fig. 4-28).
(4) The upper body is kept from leaning
into the slope throughout the turn,
especially during the initial turning
phase. Forward lean and knee bend
I flbpIlJ CpLJf, are increased. All motions are fluent
and smooth and must be well timed
during the turn.
(5) When a decrease in speed is desired
before starting the turn, there are
two methods which can be used. In
4
t the first method the lower ski is first
placed into a half snowplow position.
0
Temporarily transferring the body
weight to the ski and edging it will
cause a braking action. When speed
has been decreased as desired, the
upper ski is pushed upward, the edg-
ing of the lower ski decreased, and
lit
11

the turn continued as in (2), (3), and


(4) above. In the second method both
-I

skis are kept parallel and a sideslip


from the moving traverse position is
started. Edging of the skis in this
movement will provide braking ac-
tion. When speed has been decreased
as desired, the turn is started as from
the downhill traverse position.
b. Variations.
(1) In difficult snow and terrain condi-
tions another method may be used to
execute a snowplow christiania. In
making a downhill turn to the left
from a downhill traverse with this
2110 CJJL2U!V uq ALJV4OUr method, the upper (right) ski is
brought into a half snowplow position.
c2SU3 Leaning well forward, increasing the
knee bend and decreasing the edging
moved downhill into a half snowplow of the lower ski will bring the skier
position, keeping the ski tips even. smoothly towards the fall line; the
At the same time, the lower shoulder body weight is transferred over and
is brought forward. The uphill ski is onto the right ski in a smooth for-
then pushed uphill to form a snow- ward and downward motion, assisted
plow. by bringing the right shoulder for-
(2) Body weight is then transferred back ward. As the transfer of body weight
to the upper ski by body rotation, is completed, the unweighted left ski
initiating the turning action. is brought forward and parallel with

90 AGO 8641A
the right ski and the turn completed b. Technique.
from the fall line as in the uphill (1) The turn is started by applying either
christiania.
of the methods described for chris-
(2) As more skills and balance are ac- tiania turns, except that the speed is
quired, the snowplow christiania may adjusted to suit the circumstances.
be done at higher speeds with the
angle of turn kept closer to the fall (2) For a turn to the left as the skier
line. In this method only a half approaches the fall line, the left ski
snowplow with the upper or lower ski pole is placed in the snow forward
is used in the preparatory position, and down the slope, but not directly
or skis are kept parallel and the fall in front of the left ski tip. The reach
line is reached with a pronounced should not be overextended. The right
knee bend and forward lean of the pole is held in the normal manner.
body while the turn is completed with Weight is then applied to the left ski
an uphill christiania. pole, using it for means of support
and as a pivot point.
4-35. The Lifted Christiania (3) Body weight is then shifted to the
a. Use. The lifted christiania turn is very right ski. Since it is difficult to turn
useful in adverse snow conditions and in con- the left ski in such a short radius,
fined terrain where a short radius turn is neces- this ski is lifted and placed parallel
sary. It is also useful for skiing at night and to, and slightly ahead of, the right
with heavy loads, since it is a slow turn made ski, and the turn completed as in the
with one ski pole being used to increase uphill christiania.
lateral stability.

Section IV. MILITARY SNOWSHOEING


4-36. Purpose and Scope mechanics, and for similar occupations where
a. Snowshoes are individual aids for over- aids to movement in snow are necessary.
snow movement. Like skis, they provide flotat- Transporting, carrying, and storing snowshoes
ion in snow and are useful for cross-country is relatively easy due to their size and weight.
marches and other activities which require Maintenance requirements are generally negli-
movement in snow-covered terrain. gible and little skill is required to become pro-
ficient on snowshoes. However, the require-
b. The snowshoe is an oval or elongated ment for physical conditioning is as great, or
frame braced with two of three crosspieces and greater, as that needed for skiing. The use of
the inclosed space filled with a web lacing. A snowshoes when pulling and carrying heavy
binding or harness attached to the webbing se- loads is particularly practical, as the hands
cures the wearer’s foot to the snowshoe. Flota- and arms remain free. On steep slopes, how-
tion is provided by the webbing, which is ever, the use of snowshoes is considerably
closely laced and prevents the snowshoe from limited because traction becomes negligible and
sinking too deeply into the snow when weight the showshoe will slide, causing loss of footing.
is placed upon it. Depth and consistency of Generally, the rate of movement in any type
snow will determine the amount of support ob- of terrain is slow because snowshoes will not
tained on the snow cover and the rate of move- glide over the snow. The gliding properties of
ment. the ski are not obtained with the snowshoes;
c. Snowshoes are particularly useful for in- this adversely affects the amount of time and
dividuals working in confined areas such as energy spent in movement. In deep snow the
bivouac sites and supply dumps, for drivers of trailbreaker must be changed frequently. Es-
various types of vehicles, gun crews, cooks, pecially when wet, snow tends to stick to the
AGO 8641A 91
webbing, thereby adding weight to the snow- “Binding, Snowshoe, Bearpaw and Trail Type”
shoe. has been developed for use on all three types.
This binding consists generally of a toe strap
d. There are three types of standard issue and a heel and instep strap. The straps are
snowshoes: the trail, the bearpaw, and the made of nylon and are secured by keepers and
magnesium. They can be used with all types cam lever quick-release buckles. The method of
of winter footgear. The trail snowshoe weighs securing the binding to the magnesium snow-
approximately 6.5 pounds, the bearpaw, 5.5
pounds and the magnesium, 4.6 pounds. shoe is snown in figure 4-32.
(1) Trail. The trail-type snowshoe is long,
with a rather narrow body and up-
turned toes (fig. 4-29). The two ends
of the frame connect and extend tail-
like to the rear. The turned-up toe has
a tendency to ride over the snow and
other minor obstacles. The excellent
flotation provided by its large sur-
faces makes the trail snowshoe best
for cross-country marches, deep snow
conditions, and trailbreaking.

t—W

(2) Bearpaw. This type of snowshoe is 4-37. Care and Storage of Snowshoes
short, wide, and oval in shape, with
no frame extension (fig. 4-30). The a. Care. Snowshoes must always be kept in
bearpaw snowshoe is preferable to the good condition. Frequent checks are necessary,
trail type for close work with weapons particularly of webbing and binding, because
and vehicles, in heavy brush, and in individual strands may be ripped or worn out.
other confined areas. Carrying or Repairs must be made immediately, otherwise
storing is also easier. the webbing will loosen and start to unravel. If
(3) Magnesium. The magnesium snow- unvarnished, the rawhide webbing on wooden
shoe is the lightest and most durable snowshoes will absorb moisture, stretch and
of the three types (fig. 4-31). The turn white, particularly in wet snow. It should
snowshoe has a magnesium frame be dried out slowly, avoiding direct flames, and
with the center section made of steel, be revarnished at the first opportunity. Wooden
nylon-coated wire. The magnesium frames may fray from hard wear and should
snowshoe is 17.70 cm (approx 7") be sanded and varnished. When needed, other
shorter than the standard wooden minor repairs should be made as soon as
trail snowshoe but is 9.50 cm (approx practicable. When snow cover is shallow, care
4") wider giving it approximately must be taken not to step on small tree stumps,
the same flotation characteristics. branches, or other obstacles, since the webbing
may be broken or damaged. Stepping into wa-
e. The trail and bearpaw snowshoes have ter is to be avoided; the water will freeze and
their own individual bindings, however, the, snow will stick to it. When not in use in the
92 AGO 8641A
4. uum

JGL AJ6JA
vLc dçb ponjq 6 qonpjq pvcjc flU6L
ssc '— Ic66b6L

AGO 8641A 93
field, snowshoes are placed in temporary
racks, hung in trees, or placed upright in the
snow. They should be kept away from open
fires and out of reach of rodents.
b. Storage. In off-seasons, wooden snowshoes
are stored in a dry, well-ventilated place so
that the rawhide will not mildew or rot and
the frames warp. Each snowshoe is closely
checked for possible damage, repaired if need-
ed, and revarnished. As in the field, snowshoes
are protected against damage and from rodents.
Magnesium snowshoes are cleaned and repaint-
ed if necessary. Webbing is examined and re-
paired or replaced if needed.

4-38. Snowshoe Technique


a. A striding technique is used for movement
with snowshoes. In taking a stride, the toe of
the snowshoe is lifted upward, to clear the
snow, and thrusted forward. Energy is con-
served by lifting it no higher than is necessary
to clear the snow and slide the tail over it.
If the front of the snowshoe catches, the foot
is pulled back to free it and then lifted before
proceeding with the stride. The best and least
fatiguing method in travel is a lose-kneed l,
rocking gait in a normal rhythmic stride. Care
is taken not to step on or catch the other 1'

snowshoe.
b. On gentle slopes, ascent is made by climb- %st '— c cui o
ing straight upward. Traction is generally
very poor on hard-packed or crusty snow. snow there is danger of catching and tearing
Steeper terrain is ascended by traversing and the webbing on tree stumps or snags which
packing a trail similar to a shelf across it. are only sightly covered. Wet snow will fre-
When climbing, the snowshoe is placed as hori- quently ball up under the feet, interfering with
zontally as possible in the snow. On hard snow, comfortable walking. This snow should be
the snowshoe is placed flat on the surface knocked off with a stick or pole as soon as
with the toe of the upper one diagonally uphill possible. Although ski poles are generally not
to get more traction. In the event the snow is used in snowshoeing, one or two poles are
sufficiently hard-frozen to support the weight desirable when carrying heavy loads, especially
of a person, it is generally better to remove the in mountainous terrain. The bindings must
snowshoes and proceed temporarily on foot. In not be fastened too tightly or circulation will
turning around, the best method is to swing be cut off, and frostbite may occur. During
the leg up and turn in the new direction, as halts, bindings should be checked for fit and
in making a kick turn on skis (fig. 4-33). possible readjustment.
c. Obstacles such as logs, tree stumps,
ditches and small streams should be stepped 4-39. Training
over. Care must be taken not to place too much Snowshoe training requires little technical
strain on the snowshoe ends by bridging a skill. However, emphasis must be placed on the
gap, since the frame may break. In shallow physical conditioning of the individual and the
94 AGO 8641A
development of muscles which are seldom used ing the distance covered and weight carried or
in ordinary marching. The technique, as such, pulled. Overcoming obstacles such as dense
can be learned in a few periods of instruction. brush, fallen timber, and ditches should be
Stiffness and soreness of muscles are to be ex- emphasized during training. Trailbreaking,
pected at first. The initial training should be with frequent change of lead man, should also
gradual with regard to loads carried and be stressed. Snowshoe training can be accom-
distances covered. It should be progressive, plished concurrently with other training re-
with ample time allowed for the individual to quiring individual cross-country movement.
acquire physical proficiency, gradually increas-

Section V. APPLICATION OF SKI AND SNOWSHOE TECHNIQUE


4-40. Skiing in Variable Terrain and Snow shift will need to be controlled to a greater
a. General. As a military skier the individual extent by the knees and the advancement of
must be prepared to move in a great variety one ski in front of the other.
of terrain and snow conditions during daylight
and darkness. He must be constantly alert in
order to judge conditions on the route ahead
and to off set the sudden changes often encoun-
tered. The techniques of skiing which he has
learned will allow him to operate effectively on
slopes only if he is capable of applying these
methods properly and of keeping his skis under
control at all times. I O.Wslso.pab
b. Variable Terrain. The forward lean of the
body must be increased as a slope suddenly
steepens, since skis will slide faster. The oppo-
site is true as the slope is lessened. Generally,
the body should be nearly perpendicular to the
slope regardless of pitch, to insure proper
balance. When skiing over bumpy terrain, the ; pLonIp p. pojo o. pnwb
stability of the skier is greatly disturbed. To
minimize this the knees are kept supple to act tst '—'' osos o\ qotq
as shock absorbers, permitting the center of pnb uçw
the body to maintain as straight a line as
possible. To further increase stability on large c. Variable Snow. When skiing from soft
bumps the skier increases knee bend, lowering snow onto hard snow the forward lean of the
the body when approaching the top of the body must be increased, since the skis will
bump, riding over it in this position, and then gain speed and have a tendency to run from
assuming a normal running position as soon under the skier. The opposite is true when run-
as the top is passed (fig. 4-34), i.e., allowing ning from hard snow onto soft snow. In this
the skis to drop away. This action will lessen case the body leans slightly to the rear and
the chance of the skier being thrown into the the leading ski is advanced farther ahead just
air. When moving through a hollow the normal before the soft snow is entered. Lateral stabil-
ski and body position is maintained, with the ity can be increased by extending the arms
knees absorbing the sudden change of pressure. sideways as is done when attempting to keep
In deep snow the leading ski should be fur- balance when walking a log or a railroad
ther advanced to improve balance. The center track, but the ski poles must still be kept point-
of gravity must be kept lower by more bend- ing to the rear. When skiing on icy crust,
ing of the knees. As forward lean of the body stability is improved by keeping the skis far-
is not practical under these conditions, weight ther apart or by running in a slight snowplow
AGO 8641A 95

154-616 O - 94- 4
position. However, if the slope is rutted snow- be reduced if skis are removed while overcom-
plowing may become hazardous because the ing the obstacles.
tips tend to get caught. To control speed under b. Fences and Windfalls. Low fences and
these conditions, sideslipping and pole riding windfalls 30 to 60 cm high (1'to 2') are
may be used. Pole riding is less effective and in crossed by skiing or snowshoeing beside the
extreme cases the use of sideslipping may be- obstacle so that the skis or snowshoes are
come necessary. On icy snow the skis may parallel and alongside it, then stepping over
chatter in a turn. To correct this, body weight first with one foot then the other, or a kick
is kept well forward and the edging of the turn may be made over the obstacle. In the
skis carefully controlled as the turn is made. case of rail fences or large diameter windfalls
Crusty snow which will not support the skier’s it may sometimes be easier to sit on the ob-
weight (breakable crust) is the most difficult stacle and swing both feet simultaneously to
to cope with. Speed is kept slower while mak- the other side. High barbed wire fences can be
ing all turns. It may become necessary to use crossed by removing pack and rifle and crawl-
the step turn in motion or a kick turn to change ing underneath (fig. 4-35).
direction.
c. Ditches or Small Streams. These are
d. Forest. Due to the limited skiing room crossed by stepping over them sideways, using
in wooded terrain, movements for changing the ski poles for support (fig. 4-35). If the
direction must be rapid and of shorter radius ditches are deep and wide it is better to descend
than in open terrain, especially during down- to the bottom either by sidestepping or side-
hill movement. In addition, the skier must be slipping and then climb the other side by
more alert so that obstacles may be quickly sidestepping. However, care must be taken to
overcome with a minimum of delay. The step avoid rocks or other obstacles which might
turn in motion is a very useful technique for damage the skis or snowshoes.
changing direction in this type of terrain, but
speed must be reduced to use this technique. d. Steep Slopes. When it is necessary for
In descending narrow trails in wooded terrain troops to descend or ascend slopes which are
or during night movements, the half snowplow too steep for their ability, or where traversing
or pole riding are useful for control of speed. is not practical, the sidestep should be used or
During unit movement in wooded terrain, one the skis should be removed and the slope ne-
man falling can block the progress of all per- gotiated on foot whenever snow depth will per-
sonnel behind him. If an individual falls he mit.
should remove himself from the track in the
fastest way possible, even if this results in los- 4-42. Skiing With Pack and Weapon
ing his original position in the column. The a. General. When skiing with pack and
baskets of ski poles have a tendency to snag weapon the same techniques apply. However,
branches during movement in wooded terrain, the added weight carried, changes the center
resulting in loss of balance. To avoid this as of gravity and will affect the manner in which
much as possible, the shafts of the ski poles movements are made.
should be pointed directly to the rear.
b. Effects on Movements.
4-41. Obstacles (1) Lunges are shorter and pushes with
a. General. Snow-covered terrain will contain poles less powerful.
many small obstacles such as fences, tree (2) To aid in maintaining balance when
windfalls, and small streams or ditches. The skiing downhill over rough terrain, the
individual must be skilled enough to cross them leading ski is advanced farther and
easily to save time and energy. Crossing ob- the knees kept more flexible than
stacles can be very time consuming for a unit. when skiing without a load.
Wherever possible, the men should be dis- (3) Speed of descent is reduced and tech-
persed so as to enable them to cross on a broad niques are applied more cautiously.
front. In some cases the overall time needed can (4) Rotation of arms and shoulders is
96 AGO 8841
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made with less vigor and emphasis. methods of hauling sleds apply to both skiers
(5) Slopes are climbed with a more and snowshoes.
gradual traverse. b. Preparation for Sled Pulling.
(6) When skiing through woods or in (1) The tow ropes must be of the proper
brushy terrain, care must be exercised length and also properly laid out and
in order to prevent any protruding fastened by snap buckles in tandem
parts of the weapon from catching system (fig. 4-36 ). The sled harnesses
on branches, causing loss of balance. are adjusted to fit loosely on the in-
(7) In the event of a fall it is sometimes dividuals.
more efficient to remove the pack and (2) If skis are to be used for pulling, they
weapon before attempting to regain must be properly waxed. More empha-
footing. sis must be placed on insuring good
holding capacity of the wax on the
4-43. Sled Pulling snow. However, sliding capacity
should not be entirely forfeited.
a. General. Pulling a sled is hard work, but
it will be easier if proper techniques are used, (3) Proper loading and lashing of sled
The movements and techniques used should be must be checked before moving out.
within the ability of all members of the team, c. Pulling on Varied Terrain. When pulling
and, where possible, teams should be formed a sled over comparatively flat terrain, skiers
with this in mind. Generally speaking, the normally use the one step ski technique. When
AGO 8641A 97
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the men to move far enough ahead before the
turn is made, the pullers must start the turn
by gradually making as gentle a curve as possi-
2
ble while the two men nearest the sled (in
front and behind) guide, lift, and otherwise
a assist in turning the sled. While turning, the
pullers must watch the movements of each
other in order to avoid confusion.
d. Uphill Climbing. To pull a sled uphill the
following methods can be applied:
Vb flCKfE 1DM Ob (1) On short, gentle slopes the herring-
bone can be used.
D
(2) On a steep, short slope the pullers can
use the sidestep (fig. 4-37). In this
case the rear man moves to the front
. WJJ" LLIJGW6IJ4
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and side of the sled and, while side-
stepping, assists in pulling the sled by
ss'c '—%—ou;pJrz6q' using the rope fastened to the front
end.
crossing small ditches, the sled is stopped in (3) On very gentle slopes and in snow
the ditch while the pullers go as far as the with good traceability an uphill tra-
two ropes allow. Then, by a simultaneous pull, verse may be employed. Ski climbers
the sled is brought up out of the ditch. To can be used if the length of the slope
change direction in woods, the pullers con- justifies the time required to put
tinue to move straight forward until the sled them on.
comes to the desired turning point. The pullers (4) In difficult terrain a relaying tech-
then move in the new direction with the turn nique may be used when the necessary
being controlled by the puller nearest the sled, equipment is available. In this tech-
assisted, if necessary, by the man behind. When nique a climbing rope, 36.50 meters
the forest is dense and space does not allow (120') long, or similar item, is fas-
98 AGO 8641A
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tened to the sled. The pullers then (1) On very gentle slopes and in poor
climb uphill as far as the rope allows. snow conditions where the sled will
Standing in place, the sled is then not descend on its own accord, the
pulled up to their position. This skier can use a double poling tech-
procedure is repeated as many times nique or one step. However, it will be
as is necessary to reach the top. necessary to control the speed to
When using this technique care must prevent the sled from overrunning
be taken to insure that the sled is the pullers. The rear man can assist
well anchored each time the pullers in this by braking the sled, although
move up since a runaway sled may in most cases very little braking will
not only damage itself but is a serious be needed. If the team is on snow-
hazard to anyone below. Where steep shoes, the pullers can descend nor-
slopes must be ascended for considera- mally while the man in the rear in-
ble distances, less energy will be sures that the sled does not overrun
expended if the sleds are left behind those in front.
and the sled load backpacked to the
objective. (2) A short, steep slope can be descended
by sidestepping either on skis or
e. Downhill Movement. In descending a slope snowshoes. If necessary, the rear
the following methods can be used: man is assisted in the braking action
AGO 8641A 99
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by one or more members of the team. be needed to brake the sled. This can
Skiers can also use sideslipping for be done by fastening all tow ropes to
this type of terrain. For short descents the rear of the sled with all men brak-
in wooded areas, the braker should ing from the rear and/or one skier
position himself behind a tree for controlling the sled by straddling the
added stability in lowering the sled. front of the sled (fig. 4-38), and con-
If necessary, a succession of position trolling the sled by himself or assisted
moves are made. by one or more brakers. The snow-
(3) On long, moderate slopes skiers can plow or sideslipping techniques are
use the snowplow as a braking method used as the braking method.
(fig. 4-38). If more braking is neces- (5) Traversing by both skiers and snow-
sary than can be supplied by the rear shoes may be used on long, steep
man, the puller closest to the sled may downhill slopes. In this case the puller
move to one side or he may remove nearest the sled and the rear man
his rope and refasten it to the rear should remain above the sled and as
of the sled and assist the rear man far from it as the ropes will allow.
for more effective braking. Snow- From this position they can brake,
shoes on this type of slope may also preventing the sled from sideslipping.
change pullers to brakers to aid in (6) In very steep terrain a long rope,
descent. when available, may be used to lower
(4) On a long, steep slope requiring the the sled straight down the slope. This
team to go straight down, all men will procedure is the reverse of the uphill
100 AGO 8641A
SO34

relay method described in d (4) above, of twos, are spaced at equal intervals
and is a very practical method for behind the vehicle and outside the
evacuating wounded. ropes. A gap of approximately 4
meters (12') is left between indivi-
4-44. Skijoring duals.
a. General. Skijoring, as used in this manual, (2) Several methods of towing can be
is the term applied to moving men on skis used according to the situation, the
over snow by towing them with vehicles. This terrain, and the distance of move-
provides a faster and less tiring method for ment:
individual movement than is possible under (a) The skier grasps a bight of rope
their own locomotion. Oversnow vehicles, track and makes a 25 cm (10") loop by
and wheeled vehicles can be used for pulling tying an overhand knot. The loop
skiers (fig. 4-39 ). The best routes for skijor- is held with one hand and poles
ing are snow covered roads and trails, frozen are held in the other, or a long
lakes, rivers, or paths made by tracked ve- loop can be formed by tying an
hicles. Speeds up to 24 KmPH (15 MPH) may overhand knot in a 1.50 to 2 meter
be maintained on level ground by trained (5' to 7') bight of rope. The skier
troops, depending on weather and trail condi- leans against the loop after placing
tions. Normally, one rifle squad can be towed it around the buttocks. He does not
behind a light carrier and two squads behind place the body through the loop
a squad carrier. Towing more than two squads (1, fig. 4-40).
by one vehicle is impractical, due to the in- (b) Using the ski pole method (2, fig.
creased length of the column, difficulty in mak- 4-40), the skier rests both arms
ing turns, and the limitations of the vehicle and body and can arrive at the
and the skiers using the technique over steep destination in better physical con-
or wooded terrain, and during poor or spotty dition. Another advantage in this
snow conditions. method is that a skier can easily
exercise his hands to prevent frost-
b. Use of Tow Rope. (For a description of bite during movement in extreme
knots see FM 31-72.) cold.
(1) Two ropes 36.50 meters (120') long (c) When being towed through dense
are used for towing a rifle squad be- wooded areas, or when contact with
hind a vehicle and for the purpose of the enemy is imminent, skiers may
securing sufficient space between the simply grasp the rope without ty-
individuals. The skiers, in columns of ing a knot or using the ski poles as
AGO 8641A 101
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