Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BASIC
COLD WEATHER
MANUAL
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FM 31-70
Cl
CHANGE HEADQUARTERS
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
No. 1 WASHINGTON , D.C., /7 December /968
BASIC COLD WEATHER MANUAL
FM 31-70, 12 April 1968, is changed as follows: mately 15° F to –15° F). The term moderately
Page 53, paragraph 3-51 b, In line 16 “(LOW)” is cold is used only as a descriptive term. What is
changed to read “(LAW or Lubricant, Semi- termed as moderately cold to one person, may be
Fluid, MIL--L--46000A(LSA)).” extremely cold to another. The windchill factor
Page 165, paragraph D-2 a. In line 10 “(LOW)” must also be considered, a moderate cold could
is changed to read “(LAW or Lubricant, Semi- change momentarily to extreme cold by the addi-
Fluid, MIL-L-46000A(LSA)).” tion of high winds. Therefore, the commander
Page 166, paragraph D-3a (2). In line 21 “LOW” should use the type loads for planning only and
is changed to read "LAW or Lubricant, Semi- should adjust them accordingly to fit a given situa-
Fluid, MIL-L-46000A(LSA).”
Page 166, paragraph D-3 a (3), In lines 3 & 4 tion and temperature condition.
wwtsia
-
“LOW” is changed to read “LAW or Lubricant,
Semi-Fluid, MIL-L-46000A(LSA).”
Page 166, paragraph D-3 b (4). In line 7 “LOW” is J{GJIUGCb IA\73116L 9 00
changed to read “LAW or Lubricant, Semi- flhJqGLeJflLç' 2o\2o 0' s
DLWJLGL2' 20\20 0' 20
Fluid, MIL--L-46000A(LSA).” 2OC' C"2J'1°" OJG 0' 10
Page 170, paragraph E–2 a. In line 14 “Cap, Cold nabGnqGL 0' 32
Weather” is changed to read “Cap, Insulting, 1L0112GL21 conou y4?.JWJ ThU 3' 10
Helmet Liner-Helmet.” 2P!L1' 11s001 L4AIOIJ 00 120
Page 171, paragraph E 2c. Entire page 171 is c° ccc" jOu m1 9' So
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E-3. Type Load WJ cdenbwnç io' 23
The loads shown below are type loads which could
be worn during moderately cold weather (approxi-
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0• 12 the individual during moderately cold weather.
o. o These items are normally carried in the duffle bag
joD. I.
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JJ,QIJ Ei1Jt4.(.I?. 0I on unit transportation and should be available to
the individual when needed:
0.
Undershirt, 50/50
Io1vl J,!RpUR o1q. ' 02 Drawers, 50/50
Socks, Cushion Sole (3 pr)
to3;. Trousers, Cotton Nylon, WR
HncJtrcc' AIo1J D'1 OC-- - 2' 00 Shirt, Wool Nylon, OG
LOnoRJe (OUJ mc O. mrctcpoqio Parka, Cotton Nylon
po Luicjmicjc: Liner, Parka, Nylon Quilted
D1J 2IcGbw (QnL) - . 00
B' J0c!!JJ (InvoL)
nommiic - 2 00
Mitten Set, Arctic
- Page 184, paragraph G-6a. In line 1 “(LOW)” is
c' JL17GL gGbcJJIJ
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JOF J
W. C. WESTMORELAND,
General, United States Army,
Official: Chief Of Staff.
KENNETH G. WICKHAM,
Major General, United States Army,
The Adjutant General.
Distribution:
To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-11 requirements for Basic Cold Weather Manual.
TAGO 649A
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1-1. Purpose and Scope These include, among others, erecting and
a. This manual is designed to prepare the striking tents, performing maintenance, con-
individual soldier and small unit commander structing roads, starting and warming engines,
to conduct military operations for extended movement of supplies, and hundreds of other
periods of time under the most severe and small tasks that must be performed while
varying cold weather climatic conditions. The wearing bulky cold weather clothing.
doctrine and techniques in the manual are e. Insofar as possible illustrations used in
applicable in any area that has cold weather this manual reflect Standard A items of cloth-
and snow with their accompanying opera- ing and equipment. However, because of non-
tional problems. Troops properly trained in availability of some items at time of publica-
this doctrine and these techniques will be able tion, some illustrations show Standard B or C
to fight; live; and move in any cold weather items of clothing (para 2-7).
area of the world. f. Measurements in this manual to the ex-
b. The provisions of SOLOG Agreement 23R, tent practicable, reflect both the Metric and
Arctic Doctrine are implemented in this U.S. systems; however, in some cases figures
manual. will show only the U.S. system. For ease in
transposition, meters have been converted to
c. The material contained herein empha- yards on a one for one basis. For more exact
sizes that cold, with its attendant problems measurements use the conversions shown in
affects military operations but does not pre- appendix H.
vent them. The proper use of authorized equip-
ment and field expedients will, to a major g. Users of this manual are encouraged to
degree, overcome any problems encountered as submit recommendations to improve its clarity
a result of the cold. It is the commander’s or accuracy, Comments should be keyed to the
responsibility to train his men so they can specific page, paragraph, and line of the text
make the environment save military opera- in which the change is recommended. Reasons
tions, not hinder them. The material presented should be provided for each comment to insure
herein is applicable, without modification to understanding and complete evaluation. Com-
nuclear and nonnuclear warfare, employment ments should be forwarded direct to Com-
of, and protection from, chemical, biological, manding General, United States Army, Alaska,
and radiological agents, and internal defense APO Seattle 98749. Originators of proposed
and development operations. changes which would constitute a significant
modification of approved Army doctrine may
d. Throughout this manual reference is send an information copy, through command
made to the additional time required to con- channels, to the Commanding General, United
duct various tasks in cold weather operations. States Army Combat Developments Command,
This requirement cannot be overemphasized Fort Belvoir, Virginia 22060, to facilitate re-
and must be included in all planning. In addi- view and followup.
tion to the increased amount of time con-
sumed in actual movement, allowance must be 1-2. Relation to Other Manuals
made for other time consuming tasks that are This manual is prepared with the assump-
not present in temperate zone operations. tion that normal individual and basic unit
AGO 8641A 3
training have been completed. The manual beyond the treatment given in this manual on
should be used in conjunction with the basic the operation and maintenance of equipment
field manuals of the arms and services as well during cold weather operations. Appendix A
as FM 31-71and FM 3l-72. Appropriate tech- contains a list of supplementary manuals and
nical manuals contain detailed information references.
4 AGO 8641A
CHAPTER 2
INDIVIDUAL CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT
Section 1. GENERAL
2-1. Basis of Issue mal winter conditions, 65 to 70 pounds is the
a. As used in this manual, individual cloth- maximum weight a man can normally wear
ing and equipment are those items issued or and carry and still be effective on reaching his
sold to a soldier for his personal use, and in- destination.
clude certain organizational equipment utilized b. The weight of individual clothing and
by the individual. The basis of issue of cold equipment is covered in appendix E. Com-
weather clothing and equipment may be found manders should give particular attention to
in TA 50-901. Mandatory items of personal additional organizational equipment required
clothing are listed in AR 700–8400–1. for a given operation. Some of the more com-
b. The U.S. Army, through continuous re- mon items are also listed in appendix E. Since
search and development, endeavors to main- the individual soldier’s combat load in cold
tain the best clothing and equipment in the weather operations exceeds that of a temperate
world. When properly fitted and properly util- climate load by more than 20 pounds, these
ized this clothing will provide adequate pro- organizational items (such as binoculars, com-
tection from the elements and will enable passes, radios and batteries, pioneer tools, crew
trained, well disciplined troops to carry out served weapons, etc. ) become major consider-
year-round field operations under cold weather ations and must be included at all levels of
conditions, wherever they may be encountered. planning.
c. To utilize fully the protection afforded by c. In addition to the individual combat load,
the present standard cold weather clothing and another 45 to 55 pounds of clothing and equip-
equipment, it is necessary to understand the ment is required for the protection and com-
principle involved and the correct function of fort of each individual under conditions of ex-
each item. This chapter covers basic principles treme cold. Transportation must be provided
and provides general guidance on the purpose for this additional load whenever possible.
and use of cold weather clothing and equip- d. The commander must take positive action
ment. to insure that a balance exists between what
the individual is wearing and what he is
2-2. Commander's Responsibilities required to carry in the way of equipment. He
a. Many factors will influence the command- must also insure that troops dress as lightly
er’s decision as to what items of clothing and as possible consistent with the weather in
equipment his troops should wear or carry. order to reduce the danger of excessive per-
These include the weather, mission at hand, spiring and subsequent chilling. The complete
actual duties to be performed, overall physical cold-wet or cold-dry uniform for the applica-
condition of individuals and their degree of ble environmental conditions must be readily
proficiency. If a movement is involved he must available. A large proportion. of cold weather
consider the distance to be traveled, the casualties results from too few clothes being
method of travel, and how the troops will be available to individuals when a severe change
fed en route, if applicable. If the movement is in the weather occurs. Because of the differ-
on foot, he must bear in mind that under nor- ences in individual metabolism, commanders
AGO 8641A 5
must not be arbitrary in delineating strict muddy and slushy. During these periods troops
uniform requirements, but must allow some should wear clothing which consists of a
personal choice of undergarments. water-repellent, wind-resistant outer layer and
inner layers with sufficient insulation to pro-
2-3. Cold Weather Conditions vide ample protection in moderately cold
The use of cold weather clothing is affected weather (above 14°F.).
by two types of weather conditions: wet and b. Dry Conditions. Cold-dry conditions occur
dry. These conditions are amplified by humid- when average temperatures are lower than
ity coupled with temperature and wind veloc- 14°F. The ground is usually frozen and snow
ity; high humidity (wet conditions), low is usually dry, in the form of fine crystals.
humidity (dry conditions). Strong winds cause low temperatures to seem
a. Wet Conditions. Cold-wet conditions occur colder and increase the need for protection of
when temperatures are near freezing and vari- the entire body (windchill) (fig. F-1). During
ations in day and night temperatures cause these periods, troops should have available
alternate freezing and thawing. This freezing additional insulating layers of clothing. This is
and thawing is often accompanied by rain and particularly true when entering static situa-
wet snow, causing the ground to become tions form a period of strenuous exercise.
II
H •1i'
Figure 2–1. Basic components of cold-wet uniform.
and upon requisitioning some Standard B (12) Glove Shells. Leather Black with
clothing may be issued. Although not shown as Glove Inserts; Wool and Nylon Knit,
basic items of the cold weather uniforms, light OG 208, or Mitten Shells; Trigger
cotton underwear may be worn under the Finger Leather Palm and Thumb
winter underwear (para 2-6 b (l)). with Mitten Inserts; Wool and Nylon
a. Cold-Wet Uniform. The basic components Knit, OG, Trigger Finger, or Mitten
of the cold-wet uniform are illustrated in fig- Set Arctic; Gauntlet Style Shell with
ure 2-1 unless otherwise indicated. Leather Palm (fig. 2-5).
(1) Undershirt Mans. 50 Cotton 50 Wool, (13) Hood Winter. Cotton and Nylon Ox-
Full Sleeve. ford, OG 107, with drawcord and fur.
(2) Drawers Mens. 50 Cotton 50 Wool, (14) Poncho. Coated Nylon Twill, OG 207
Ankle Length. (not illustrated).
(3) Socks Mens. Wool Cushion Sole, OG b. Cold-Dry Uniform. The basic components
408, Stretch Type. of the cold-dry uniform are illustrated in fig-
(4) Suspenders Trousers. Scissors Back ure 2-2 unless otherwise indicated.
Type. (1) Undershirt Mens. 50 Cotton 50 Wool,
(5) Trousers Mens. Wool Serge, OG 108. Full Sleeve.
(6) Shirt Mans. Wool Nylon Flannel, OG (2) Drawers Mens. 50 Cotton 50 Wool,
108. Ankle Length.
(7) Trousers Mens. Cotton Nylon, Wind (3) Socks Mens. Wool Cushion Sole, OG
Resistant Sateen, 8.5 oz, OG 107. 408, Stretch Type.
(8) Boot Insulated Cold Weather. Mens (4) Suspenders Trousers. Scissors Back
Rubber Black (or Boot Combat: Type.
Mens Leather Black 8½" high with (5) Shirt Mans. Wool Nylon Flannel, OG
Overshoe: Rubber Man’s High 108.
Cleated 5 Buckle). (6) Trousers Mens. Cotton Nylon, Wind
(9) Coat Man. Cotton and Nylon Wind Resistant Sateen, 8.5 oz, OG 107.
Resistant Sateen, 8.5 oz, OG 107, (7) Liner Trousers. Nylon Quilted, 6.2 oz,
with integral hood. OG 106.
(10) Liner Coat Mens. Nylon Quilted 6.2 (8) Boot Insulated Cold Weather. Mens
oz, OG 106. Rubber White, w/release valve.
(11) Cap Insulating, Helmet Liner-Helmet. (9) Coat Man. Cotton and Nylon Wind
Cotton Nylon Oxford, OG 107. Resistant Sateen, 8.5 oz, OG 107.
AGO 8641A 9
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AGO 8641A 11
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b. Cold-Dry.
(1) Inner Layer. Same as cold-wet.
(2) Intermediate Layer. The wool OG
shirt is worn as the basic upper body
garment. The wind resistant sateen
trousers with the quilted nylon liner
are worn as the basic lower body gar-
ment. In extreme cold weather, the
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12 AGO 8641A
The parka is a three-quarter length, ener on the back. A neck strap is
unlined coat with adjustable cuffs. attached to both mittens to prevent
It has a combination slide and snap loss. The neck strap permits the
fastener front fly closure, waist and mittens, when not required for
hem drawcords and a split lower warmth, to be conveniently carried
back. The parka has a detachable snapped together behind the back.
quilted nylon liner. The arctic mitten set is carried
(4) Headgear. Same as cold-wet. whenever there is the possibility of
(5) Handwear. See c below. the onset of severe cold weather,
(6) Footwear. See d below. regardless of the mildness of the
c. Handwear. weather when setting out.
(1) Gloves. (3) Utilization.
(a) Standard black leather gloves are (a) The general rules concerning the
worn in mild weather or when use of clothing apply also to hand-
work must be done that requires wear—keep it clean, avoid over-
more freedom of finger movement heating, wear loose in layers, and
than can be acquired with heavier keep it dry.
handwear. In colder weather the (b) The outer shells should always be
same gloves are worn with wool in- worn with the minimum insulation
serts (fig. 2-5). Gloves may be necessary to provide protection,
worn with either the cold-wet or thus avoiding perspiration. Inserts
cold-dry uniforms when the should never be worn by themselves
weather is not cold enough to re- because they wear out quickly and
quire the use of mittens. provide little warmth alone. Trig-
(b) Personnel engaged in delicate fin- ger finger inserts are designed to
ger operations, such as instrument fit either hand. Changing them to
adjustment may be issued light- opposite hands frequently will in-
weight cotton work gloves. These sure even wear.
gloves allow for finger dexterity, (c) Tight fitting sleeves should be
have leather palms, and prevent avoided. They may cut down cir-
the skin from sticking to cold culation and cause hands to be-
metal. They will provide protection come cold.
against cold for only a very short (d) When handling cold metals, the
period. hands should be covered to prevent
(2) Mittens. cold burns (immediate freezing of
(a) The trigger finger mitten shells the flesh in contact with cold
(fig. 2-5), are worn with wool trig- soaked metals).
ger finger inserts during periods of (e) To keep hands warm when wear-
moderate cold. The mittens may be ing mittens, the fingers should be
worn with either the cold-wet or curled (inside the mittens) against
cold-dry uniform. Figure 2-5 the palm of the hand, thumb under-
shows the Standard B mitten. The neath the fingers, or flexed inside
Standard A item, although identi- the mitten whenever possible to in-
cal in outward appearance has had crease the blood circulation. Hands
the trigger finger loop deleted and may be exercised by swinging the
is lined on the inside upper surface arms in a vertical circle. Frost-
with lightweight quilted nylon. bitten hands can be warmed by
(b) During periods of extreme cold the placing them next to the skin un-
arctic mitten set is worn (fig. 2-5). der the armpits.
The mitten has a liner, a leather (f) An extra pair of mitten inserts
palm, a cheek warmer and a fast- should be carried.
AGO 8641A 13
d. Footwear. boots all require muscular action,
(1) General. The feet are more vulner- produces heat, and will help keep
able to cold than are other parts of the feet warm. The feet should be
the body. Cold attacks feet most often massaged when changing the
because they get wet easily (both ex- socks.
ternally and from perspiration) and (e) Boots are designed to permit at-
because circulation is easily re- tachment to individual oversnow
stricted. Footgear is therefore one of equipment (skis and snowshoes).
the most important parts of cold BINDINGS MUST BE AD-
weather clothing. JUSTED CAREFULLY. If they
(2) Principles. are too tight, the circulation of
(a) The rule of wearing clothing loose blood is restricted and feet will get
and in layers also applies to foot- cold. Improperly adjusted bindings
gear. The layers are made up by may soon chafe feet or badly wear
the boot itself and by the socks. and tear the boot.
Socks are worn in graduated sizes.
The instructions pertaining to fit- (3) T ypes.
ting of footgear, as outlined in TM (a) Boot, insulated, cold weather:
10-228, must be carefully adhered mens, rubber, black. These boots
to. If blood circulation is re- (l, fig. 2-6) are particularly useful
stricted, the feet will be cold. in snow, slush, mud, and water
Socks, worn too tightly, might (cold-wet conditions), but are not
easily mean freezing of the feet. adequate for prolonged wear in
For the same reason: AVOID temperatures below –20° F. They
LACING FOOTGEAR TIGHTLY. are specifically designed for com-
(b) Since the feet perspire more read- bat personnel who may not have
ily than any other part of the body, the opportunity to frequently
the rules about avoiding overheat- change to dry socks. Insulating
ing and keeping dry are difficult to material is hermetically sealed into
follow. Footgear is subjected to be- the sides and bottoms of the boots.
coming wet more often than are The insulation takes the place of
other items of equipment. The in- removable innersoles and the sec-
sulated boots with release valve ondary layer of socks worn in other
(white, cold-dry and black, cold- types of cold weather boots. Pers-
wet) are designed to contain pers- piration from the feet and water
piration within the interior of the spilling over the tops of the boots
boots. A change of dry socks should cannot reach the insulating mater-
be carried at all times. Whenever ial because it is sealed-in and al-
the feet get wet, dry as soon as ways remains dry. Moisture from
possible and put on a pair of dry outside sources or from perspira-
socks. Also, the inside of the boots tion may make the socks damp;
should be wiped as dry as possible. this dampness is not harmful to
(c) Footgear should be kept clean. the feet, provided they receive
Socks should be changed when they proper care such as frequent dry-
become dirty. Socks and feet should ing and massaging. If socks are not
be washed frequently. This washing changed and feet dried regularly
will help keep feet and socks in (at least twice daily) the skin be-
good condition. comes softened and is more readily
(d) The feet should be exercised. chaffed or blistered. These effects
Stamping the feet, double-timings are occasionally mistaken for su-
few steps back and forth, and flex- perficial frostbite. Only one pair of
ing and wiggling toes inside the cushion-sole socks are worn with
14 AGO 8641A
p.
1
--
2-12. Sleeping Equipment the foot with the loops and tie straps provided
a. The complete sleeping bag for use in cold and the cover laced over the outer bag.
climates consists of three parts: a case, of c. When the bag is used, it is first fluffed up
water-repellent material; an inner bag (moun- so that the down and feather insulation is
tain type), of quilted tubular construction, evenly distributed in channels, thus preventing
filled with a mixture of down and feathers; matting. Since cold penetrates from below,
and an outer bag (arctic bag), of the same and the insulation inherent in the bag is com-
material as the inner bag. In addition, an in- pressed by the weight of the body, additional
sulating air mattress and a waterproof bag insulation is placed under the bag whenever
into which the sleeping bags are packed are possible. Added insulation can be obtained by
issued. placing ponchos, extra clothing, backboards,
fiber ammunition or food containers, or
b. When temperatures are normally above boughs between the sleeping bag and the
14° F., only one bag is used. It is placed in and ground. The insertion of a waterproof cover,
laced to the cover. When temperatures are be- such as a poncho, between the sleeping bag
low 14° F., both bags are used. The inner bag and air mattress will prevent the mattress
is placed inside the outer bag and secured at and bag from freezing together at very cold
16 AGO 8641A
temperatures. This is caused by condensation 2-13. Manpack Equipment
on the mattress due to the difference in tem- a. Rucksack-Nylon, OG 106 (fig. 2-7).
peratures between the lower side touching the (1) The nylon rucksack consists of the
ground and the upper side touching the rela- following:
tively warm sleeping bag. Care must be taken (a) A lightweight aluminum alloy
to prevent puncturing the mattress or damag- frame to which all other compo-
ing sleeping bags. In general, the more insula- nents are attached.
tion between the sleeping bag and the ground,
the warmer the body. (b) A lightweight aluminum alloy
cargo support shelf provided as op-
d. If the tactical situation permits, individ- tional equipment for attachment to
uals should avoid wearing too many clothes in the frame when the frame is used
the sleeping bag. When too many clothes are as a packboard.
worn they tend to bunch up, especially at the (c) A pouch fabricated from 4-ounce
shoulders, thereby restricting circulation and nylon fabric.
inducing cold. Too many clothes also increase (d) Nylon left and right shoulder
the bulk and place tension upon the bag, thus straps. The left shoulder strap has
decreasing the size of the insulating airspaces a quick-release device designed to
between layers and reducing the efficiency of facilitate rapid doffing of the ruck-
the insulation. In addition, too many clothes sack. The right shoulder strap has
may cause the soldier to perspire and result in a rapid adjustment buckle for
excessive moisture accumulating in the bag, a lengthening the strap which allows
condition which will likewise reduce the bag’s the wearer to fire his rifle while in
insulating qualities. the prone position. The two straps
e. The sleeping bag is equipped with a full are interchangeable to accommo-
length slide fastener which has a free run- date left-handed soldiers.
ning, nonlocking slider. In an emergency, the (e) A nylon webbing waist belt de-
bag can be opened quickly by grasping both signed to prevent the rucksack
sides of the opening near the top of the slide from swinging to either side or
fastener and pulling the fastener apart. As a bouncing during body movements.
safety precaution, bags should be tested at (f) A rifle carrier consisting of a rifle
frequent intervals to insure that the slide fast- butt pocket, constructed of nylon
webbing, with a double hook and
ener operates freely and will function properly. a rifle strap.
f. The sleeping bag should be kept clean (2) The nylon rucksack is the normal
and dry. It should be opened wide and venti- pack equipment used for operations
lated after use to dry out the moisture that in northern areas and replaces the
accumulates from the body. Whenever possi- rucksack, with frame (Standard C).
ble, it should be sunned or aired in the open. It should be noted that this item may
The bag always should be laced in its water- be issued in lieu of the nylon ruck-
repellent case and carried in the waterproof sack. It should also be noted that the
bag to prevent snow from getting on it. The plywood packboard may be issued in
warmth of the body could melt the snow dur- lieu of the nylon rucksack. The sol-
ing the night and cause extreme discomfort. dier using the rucksack can carry ex-
Individuals should avoid breathing into the tra clothing and rations in the nylon
bag. If the face becomes too cold it should be pouch and can also carry one sleep-
covered with an item of clothing. Sleeping ing bag (in waterproof bag). When
bags should be drycleaned at least twice a the nylon pouch is removed and cargo
year. As a safety precaution, bags should be support shelf attached, the rucksack
thoroughly aired prior to use to prevent possi- may be used as a packboard for car-
ble asphyxiation from entrapped drycleaning rying loads weighing approximately
solvent fumes. 50 pounds (TC 10-8).
AGO 8041A 17
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9 JLBW6 2;J.b 11 BY ap.uba
4 5JJOflJq6L R;LBba 8 HIU6 a;Løb pflc]CJ6 13 HIU6 e;tvb joob Gnq
5A5tt t—s? WCY%C\ 3!3\S045 OC 1O%
18 AGO 8641A
b. Suspenders and Belt, Individual Equip- protective case to avoid scratching or breaking
ment. The suspenders and belt of the M-56 the lens. If sunglasses are lost or broken, a
standard load-carrying equipment is worn be- substitute can be improvised by cutting thin,
neath the nylon rucksack to carry ammunition 3 cm (l”) long slits through a scrap of wood
pouches, first aid or compass case, and the or cardboard approximately 15 cm (6”) long
entrenching tool. The suspenders and belt and 3 cm ( 1“ ) wide. The improvised sun-
should be adjusted to fit loosely over the cold glasses (fig. 2-8 ) can be held on the face with
weather clothing, to allow for proper ventila- strips of cloth if a cord is not available.
tion. The suspender belt combination is de- b. Canteens.
signed so that the belt can be worn unbuckled (1) Canteen, water; cold climatic (fig.
while on the march, if additional ventilation 2-9), This canteen is a vacuum-in-
is required. sulated canteen of one quart capacity
2-14. Miscellaneous Equipment with an unpainted dull finish steel
exterior. The inner and outer stain-
a. Sunglasses, Sunglasses always should be less steel vessels are welded together
worn on bright days when the ground is cov- at the top of the neck. A nonmetallic
ered with snow. They are designed to protect mouthpiece at the neck prevents lips
the eyes against sunglare and blowing snow. from freezing to the metal neck. A
If not used, snow blindness may result. They plastic cap seals and protects the
should be used when the sun is shining mouthpiece. A nesting type metal cup
through fog or clouds, A bright, cloudy day is with a capacity of one pint is pro-
deceptive and can be as dangerous to the eyes vided for eating and drinking bever-
as a day of brilliant sunshine. The sunglasses ages. The canteen with cup is carried
should be worn to shade the eyes from the in a canvas cover which fastens to
rays of the sun that are reflected by the snow. field equipment in a manner similar
Snow blindness is similar to sunburn, in that to the conventional canteens. Care
a deep burn may be received before discomfort must be taken to insure that the
is felt. To prevent snow blindness, sunglasses mouthpiece or cap are not lost. A
must be used from the start of exposure. sharp blow to the canteen may result
Waiting for the appearance of discomfort is in denting or rupture with conse-
too late. The risk of snow blindness is in- quent loss of insulating capabilities.
creased at high mountain altitudes because the (2) Conventional metal and plastic can-
clear air allows more of the burning rays of teens. Conventional canteens are car-
sunlight to penetrate the atmosphere. When ried in a fabric carrier; however,
not being used, they should be carried in the this will not keep the liquid in the
canteen from freezing in extreme
cold. When possible, the canteen
should be carried in one of the pock-
ets or wrapped in any woolen gar-
ment and packed in the rucksack. If
available, warm or hot water should
be placed in the canteen before start-
ing an operation. During extreme
cold the canteen should never be filled
over two-thirds full. This will allow
room for expansion if ice should
form, and will prevent the canteen
from rupturing. Insure that the gask-
ets are in the cap at all times. This is
an important precaution and will pre-
vent the liquid from leaking out and
—%• 1bo4e rut*.t. dampening the clothing in the ruck-
AGO 8641A 19
I 'I __________
ius.t
AGO 8641A 21
CHAPTER 3
SMALL UNIT LIVING
Section 1. GENERAL
3-1. Characteristics of Operations in Cold for cold weather operations. Under normal op-
Weather erating conditions they will work together,
Unlimited space and a sparse, widely scat- cook and eat together, and share the same tent
tered population are dominant features of most or other shelter. These small units should be
of the colder regions of the world. Such condi- formed at the beginning of training and, if
tions permit unrestricted maneuver for troops possible, kept intact. The standard to be
properly trained and equipped for cold weather achieved is a unit which can make or break
operations. Warfare under such circumstances camp quickly, efficiently, and silently under all
is characterized by, widely dispersed forces conditions; one in which each man knows the
operating at great distances from other units tasks to be completed and does them without
or their parent organization. Units must be having to be told.
highly mobile and have the ability to sustain b. Small units operating in cold weather
themselves while carrying out independent op- must be thoroughly familiar with the special
erations over extended periods of time. equipment required and the techniques in-
volved in living away from their parent orga-
3-2. Composition of Units nization for extended periods of time. Equip-
a. Small units (squad, gun crew, tank crew, ment, and the techniques of using it, are dis-
wire team, etc.) form the basic working group cussed in this chapter.
.\ Jy/
rulE
AGO 8641A 23
/:,
3$t
c. Tent, Hexagonal, Lightweight (fig. 3-2). heated by one tent stove M1941. The heavier
This tent is also six-sided, pyramidal, and sup- weight of this tent restricts its normal use to
ported by a telescopic tent pole. It is designed permanent or semipermanent base camps. It
to accommodate four to five men and their in- could be used for forward elements under
dividual clothing and equipment. Under emer- stabilized conditions.
gency conditions one tent may provide shelter
for a rifle squad or other similar unit when
rucksacks are placed outside the tent. The tent
has one door; ventilation is provided by two
built-in ventilators located on opposite sides
and near the peak of the tent. Three lines are
provided for drying clothing and equipment.
Total weight of the tent, including the pins
and center poles, is 48 pounds. The tent is
heated by an M1950 Yukon stove.
d. Tent, Frame-Type, Sectional (James-
way). This 16 by 16 frame-type tent (fig.
3-3) is a lightweight unit that offers protec-
tion for one squad. It has wooden floor units, bst %—%•
a frame, a rounded roof, and comfortable head
clearances along the centerline of the shel- e. Tent, General purpose, Small (fig. 3-4).
ter. The roof and ends of the tent are fabri- This tent is a six-sided pyramidal tent fabri-
cated from insulated, coated, fabric blankets. cated of cotton duck cloth. A liner is available
The structure is fastened to the ground with to insulate the tent furing cold weather. The
tent pins or snow with improvised devices. An
optional vestibule may be erected at one or tent is equipped with slide fastener doors,
both ends. Additional floor sections may be screened doors, screened ventilators, and stove-
added to each other lengthwise for creating pipe opening. It has a front and rear entrance,
larger buildings. Extra end sections may be each with a lacing flap arrangement to permit
installed along any rib as interior partitions. attachment of the vestibule or erection of tents
It weighs approximately 2,250 pounds and is in tandem. The tent is supported by eight ad-
24 AGO 8641A
1!st %-1 St.bO& wt
justable aluminum poles around the eave line tain a lower silhouette and gain ad-
and a standard telescopic magnesium pole at vantage of ground temperatures
the peak. The tent is used for command posts, which are generally warmer than air
fire direction centers, battalion aid stations, or temperatures. Coniferous boughs or
for any general purpose use. Although similar similar material should then be
in appearance to the Tent, Arctic, 10-man, placed on the ground for insulation
the tent has an eave height of 152.40 cm (60”) and comfort. When it is impractical
compared to 91.44 cm (36”) for the 10-man to remove snow to ground level, an
tent. The complete tent, with liner, pins and adequate tent site may be made by
poles weighs 186 pounds. packing the snow with skis or snow-
shoes until a firm base is provided
3-6. Pitching and Striking Cold Weather for pitching. In this case, the tent
Tents pole is placed on a log or other suit-
a. With proper training, small troop units able support to keep the pole from
will be able to pitch tents in 15 to 30 minutes. sinking into the snow. Support is also
Additional time will be required to complete needed for the stove under similar
the camouflage of the tent. Pitching and strik- conditions.
ing of the tents are performed in a routine (2) In open terrain, with a strong wind,
drill manner in accordance with instructions it may become necessary to build a
contained in FM 20-15. snow wall on the windward side of
b. The following must be considered when the tent to protect it from the wind.
pitching or striking the tents in snow or on The snow wall also makes it easier
frozen ground: to heat the tent and less likely that
(1) Whenever possible snow should be the tent will blow down. The tent is
cleared to the ground surface to ob- pitched with the entrance 45° down-
AGO 8641A 25
bEAYIMG MIlID DIbEC.UOM
aio '' a,o Mvrr—
1.," 1Ii.i11t1Jt'11
EU$V1E . DOMMMIIID
roM o DbVL
c. The vestibule attached to the basic
frame-type tent (Jamesway) helps reduce heat %—• \o
loss when the door is frequently used. The
main door of the tent opens inward, and thus
cannot be blocked by drifting snow if the oc- 3-8. Heating Tents with Stove, Yukon,
cupants are equipped with a shovel or impro- Ml950, 60,000 BTU
vised digging equipment. However, the vesti- a. General. The Yukon stove (1, fig. 3-8) is
bule door opens outward and can be blocked by used to heat the 10-man, 5-man, and GP Small
drifting snow during a violent storm. A safe tents. In addition to providing heat, the top
practice is to install the vestibule only at one surface of the stove and, to a small degree, the
end facing the prevailing wind and to use no area beneath the stove, may be used to cook
vestibule on the more leeward end where rations or heat water. The Yukon stove utilizes
drift will probably accumulate. Rapid exit in standard leaded motor fuel as its normal fuel,
case of fire or other emergency is then assured. but may also be operated with white gasoline,
Where severe winds are expected the tent kerosene, light fuel oil, naptha, or JP-4 fuel,
should be sited crosswise to the anticipated without modification (2, fig. 3-8). During low
wind direction since the curved roof tolerates temperatures the stove will burn five gallons
the wind load better than the flat ends, and of gasoline every 8 to 12 hours. When solid
buffeting is reduced. A vestibule should not be fuels (wood, coal, etc.) are used, the stove must
used on a tent intended for aid station use, be modified by removing the oil burner from
since a standard litter cannot negotiate the the top of the stove, closing the opening where
right angle turn required in the short vestibule. the burner was installed, and turning over the
3-7. Ventilation wire grate so that there is space below the
grate for draft and ashes. A piece of plywood
a. Tents are pitched to protect-occupants slightly larger than the base of the stove
from the elements and to provide necessary should be carried as part of the tent group
warmth and comfort. When the bottom of the equipment. The plywood is covered with alumi-
arctic tent is properly sealed and the doors are num foil and is used to provide a firm base
zipped shut, moisture will form on the inside for the stove and to prevent it from melting
of the tent and accumulate on clothing and down into the snow.
equipment, thereby causing dampness and b. Operating Procedures. The compact, light-
hoarfrost. In addition, carbon monoxide, car- ly constructed, 33-pound Yukon stove permits
bon dioxide, and fumes from the stoves may all accessory parts to be packed within the
soon accumulate to a dangerous degree. To stove body for convenient portability in a sled
offset these factors, the built-in ventilators or on a packboard. A draft diverter is issued
near the peak of the tent must be kept open. as a component part of the stove. It shields the
b. To improve ventilation, a draft channel top of the stovepipe from the wind and pre-
AGO 8641A 27
(6') in length; the poles are tied about two-
thirds of the way up using wire from ration
cases, string, rope, or emergency thong, and
then spread out to form a tripod. The fuel can
should be at least one meter (3') higher than
the stove. The lowest part of the inverted gaso-
line can should be a minimum of 30 cm (1')
above the level of the needle valve of the Yukon
stove. It should not be higher than 1.50 meters
(5') if the valve is to operate smoothly. If
the fuel can is wobbly or if there is some wind
the can must be tied to the tripod for addi-
tional protection. Make certain that the can
is tilted so that air is trapped in the upper-
most corner. The stove is assembled, operated,
and maintained in accordance with TM 10-
i B0 735.
c. Precautions. The following precautions
must be observed when the Yukon stove is
used:
(1) Burning liquid fuels.
(a). All stovepipe connections must be
s srrCsS CV
tight and necessary tent shields ad-
justed properly.
c1 JMSI
(b) Stove must be level to insure that
the burner assembly will spread an
even flame within the stove.
(c) The fuel hose must be protected so
it cannot be pulled loose accident-
ally. If necessary, a small trench
may be dug and the hose imbedded
where it crosses the tent floor.
(d) The fuel line must not be allowed
to touch the hot stove.
(e) When adjusting the fuel flow, the
drip valve lever must be turned
carefully to prevent damage to the
threads.
(f) Rate of fuel flow must be checked
at regular intervals. The rate of
S Ia;uJiv;ou ae;nb flow will change as fuel supply level
drops and will require some ad-
'k_$fl. %—% O4 JStyOM %Si justment. The stove should never
be left unattended. Maintaining a
vents a backdraft from forcing smoke or gases hotter fire than necessary may
into the stove and tent. Three, 4.5 meter (15') cause the stove body to become
guylines tied to the draft diverter serve to overheated and warp.
anchor the stovepipe in strong winds. These (9) If the flame is accidentally extin-
guylines must be anchored to the tent or tent guished, or if the fuel can is being
ropes, not to the ground or nearby trees. A changed, the drip valve must be
simple method of erecting a tripod for the fuel closed. When the stove has cooled,
can is to obtain three poles about 2 meters any excess fuel inside the stove
28 AGO 8641A
must be wiped up and 2 or 3 min- Tent Stove will burn five gallons in 3 to 4
utes allowed for gas fumes to es- hours. Prior planning must be accomplished to
cape before relighting the burner. reduce the number of stoves required, espe-
The burner must be cool before re- cially for operations that are some distance
lighting stove. If stove lit before from a road net. Wood should be used as fuel
burner is cool, the fuel will vaporize whenever possible. Cooking and heating are
prior to ignition, causing an explo- combined and, when extra heat is required to
sion. dry clothes, all individuals should dry clothes
(h) All fuel supplies must be kept out- at the same time, when possible.
side the tent. Spare cans of gaso-
line or other fuel should never be 3-11. Lighting Tents
stored inside the tent. Fuels used Candles will provide light in forward areas.
in combat areas in the north are In rear areas, gasoline lanterns or lighting
normally low temperature fuels equipment sets may be used.
which will flow freely.
3-12. Tools
(2) Burning solid fuels.
(a) Fuel should be fed a small amount a. Handtools are needed by small units for
at a time until the bed of coals is several purposes such as erection and striking
burning brightly. the tent, building ski and weapon racks, build-
(b) Stove should not be allowed to ing field latrines, chopping firewood, etc. Tools
overheat. are also needed for trailbreaking, preparation
(c) Oil or gasoline should not be poured of positions, and similar tasks. Because en-
on the fire. trenching tools are lightly constructed, they
(d) Ashes should not be allowed to ac- are of little value for work in heavy timber or
cumulate below the grate. frozen ground. The following tools are needed
by squad sized units to accomplish routine
(e) Clinkers should be removed to pre- tasks in cold regions, regardless of the season
vent grate from becoming blocked. of the year:
3-9. Heating of Semipermanent Tents With (1) One axe, chopping.
Tent Stove, Ml941 (2) One saw (Buck or Swede).
Stoves of this type normally are used to pro- (3) Two machetes with sheaths.
vide heat for the semipermanent, frame-type, (4) One shovel, general purpose.
sectional tent. The stove may be operated with b. Tools must be kept sharp, clean, oiled and
wood or coal or with various types of oil and in good condition. Care must be taken to pre-
gasoline. This stove has the same general char- clude small tools and items of equipment from
acteristics and safety features outlined for the being left in the snow or thrown aside where
Yukon stove in paragraph 3–8. they may become buried and lost in the snow.
Particular care must be exercised while wear-
3-10. Fuel Economy ing gloves because ice or frost may form on the
The minimum daily fuel consumption per gloves and cause the tools to slip from the users
Yukon stove approximates five gallons of gaso- hands, resulting in injury to nearby person-
line per 8 to 12 hours of operation. The M1941 nel and/or loss of equipment.
'-HOOD
IE IVD tV.LJILD
k
-
r OME— WH 3HEr.LEB S .LMO - VVK 2HEr.LEb
I. •U nirgnr tiøtciQ
30 AGO 8641A
3-15. Lean-To using snowblocks instead of a heavy
a. Materials. The lean-to shelter, used in for- log. Stringers approximately 3 meters
ested areas, is constructed of trees and tree (10') long and 5 to 8 centimeters
limbs. String or wire helps in the building, (2" to 3") in diameter are then
but is not necessary. A poncho, a piece of can- placed, approximately 46 cm (18")
vas, tarpaulin, or a parachute, in addition to apart, from the crosspiece over the
the baughs, may be used for covering. top of the log in the rear of the shel-
ter. Material such as cardboard, can-
vas or ponchos may be placed over the
011 1.1,
,Iu—u' framework to preclude falling or
0-u. I'—
melting snow, warmed by the fire,
from dropping through. One or both
sides of the lean-to and the roof are
then thatched.
(2) Double lean-to (fig. 3-11). Two sin-
gle lean-tos are built facing each
other and approximately 1.50 to 2
meters (5' to 6') apart. The space be-
IITI tween single lean-tos must be suffi-
cient to permit the occupants to move
__
SSIS
II
freely around the log fire placed along
tII IS the centerline of this space and to al-
low the smoke to get out through the
$t %—O opening instead of gathering under
the roofing. If desired, one end of the
middle space may be covered by a
b. Size. The lean-to is made to accommodate wall made of boughs or other mate-
a variable number of individuals. It may be rials for additional protection from
built for one man only, teams, gun crews, pa- the draft and wind.
trols, or similar small groups. From a practical
point of view, a rifle squad is the largest ele-
ment to be sheltered in one double lean-to.
c. Types. Depending on the number of indi-
viduals to be sheltered, two types of lean-tos,
single and double, are used.
d. Construction.
(1) Single lean-to (fig. 3-10). To save
time and energy, two trees of appro-
priate distance apart, and sturdy
enough to support the crosspiece ap-
proximately 1.50 meters (5') off the
ground, are selected when operating
in forested areas. It may be necessary
i—i V EI3S-O
to cut two forked poles of desired
height, or construct two A-frames to
hold the crosspieces, or use a combi- e. Heating. In heating a lean-to, any kind of
nation of these supports when bivou- oven fire may be used. The best type for large
acking in sparse wooded or semi-open size lean-tos, however, is the log fire, so the
areas. A large log is then placed to heat will be evenly distributed over the entire
the rear of the lean-to for added length of the lean-to, see paragraph 3-21 d. In
height. Other methods that may be employing open fires for heating, precautions
used are packing the snow down or must be taken to prevent the fire from burning
AGO 8641A 31
154-616 0 - 94 - 2
too hot and burning down the shelter or setting 3-18. Snow Wall
the roof on the with sparks. In open terrain with snow and ice, a snow
wall (fig. 3-13) may be constructed for protec-
3-16. Tree Shelter tion from strong winds. Blocks of compact
a. Tree-Pit Shelter. In wooded areas, the snow or ice are used to form a windbreak.
deep snow and tree-pit shelter (fig. 3-12) fur-
nishes temporary protection. To construct a
tree-pit shelter a large tree is selected with
thick lower branches and surrounded with deep
snow. The snow is shaken from the lower — *IO DI1IOI —
branches and the natural pit is enlarged
around the trunk of the tree. The walls and
floor are then lined with branches and the roof
thickened. Canvas or other material on hand
may be used for the roof.
/ / -I
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ost ç
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c. The tactical situation dicates whether or
i— 3fl \o o not sleeping bags are used. The amount of
clothing to be worn when sleeping on a bough
bed or in the sleeping bag can be best judged
3-54. Sleeping Arrangements in Bivouac by experience and will depend on temperature
a. When arranging the sleeping procedures and the tactical situation. As a minimum,
in a tent or improvised shelter, the position outer clothing is usually removed when the
of every man, especially the position of reliefs sleeping bag is used. The removed clothing is
for sentries, is planned. Each man must know placed beneath the individual for additional
AGO 8641A 55
insulation and instant availability. In an emer- thus melt the snow with less risk of cold injury
gency it may be necessary to dress in the dark. to hands or lips. A glass bottle or plastic bag
In the morning all ice and frost is removed can be used in place of an uninsulated canteen.
and the bag ventilated before rolling it up.
Time permitting, it is hung up by the strings 3-56. Bough and Firewood Areas
and thoroughly dried. The areas for cutting boughs and firewood
d. When sleeping in a heated tent without should be immediately designated when a biv-
a sleeping bag, boots are usually removed, sit- ouac site is selected.
uation permitting. The parka is used like a a. Bough Area. The area for cutting boughs
blanket. The rucksack makes a good pillow. for bedding as well as for construction of im-
The clothing is always loosened. provised shelters should be common to all in-
dividuals of the group. It is selected in a dense
3-55. Water Points and Snow Area area of woods in which springy, unfrozen
Locations boughs are available, and should not be too
During the winter it may be necessary to close to the bivouac site. It is advisable to use
obtain water by melting snow or ice. When sleds in hauling material to the shelter site.
such a source is utilized for drinking purposes, Due to the camouflage and track discipline,
an area should be set aside and restricted to only one well-concealed trail is used. When
this purpose only. A preferable site is one up- cutting boughs, the unnecessary felling of
wind from the bivouac and isolated from the trees should be avoided because trees lying on
latrine and garbage disposal areas. If such an the ground can be easily observed from the
area is not available, then snow should be air. Instead of felling trees, only the lower
gathered from the branches of trees or lightly branches should be used.
skimmed from a carefully isolated area adja- b. Firewood Area. It is advisable to have the
cent to the individual shelters. Water obtained firewood area nearby the area designated for
in this manner must be boiled for one minute bough cutting so that the same track can be
or chemically treated. Chemical sterilization of used. Dry, dead pine trees make the best fire-
water under freezing conditions requires a wood. If no dead trees are available, green
longer period because the disinfecting com- birch trees may be chopped; they possess ex-
pounds act with retarded efficiency under such cellent burning qualities even when frozen.
conditions. The time allotted for contact with The top parts of dead trees should be burned
purification tablets should be two to four times during the daytime, as they give off lighter
the normal period of one-half hour. Eating ice colored smoke. The lower part of the trunk
or snow is unsatisfactory and may result in has more resin and tar, and burns better, but
injury to lips or tongue. Contamination may makes more and much darker smoke.
also be a hazard. If no other water source is
available, as in a survival situation, snow can
be eaten but it must first be brought to the 3-57. Storage
melting point by holding it in the bare hand. Storage problems in winter are increased by
It may then be eaten slowly and in small snow, low temperatures, thaws, limited stor-
amounts. This is best done during periods of age space, and the increased problems of trans-
temporary heat excess, as during marching, or portation. Space in any shelter is limited. Only
while in the sleeping bag. The risk of frostbite items which are affected by cold, or which
to the hand must be considered and balanced must be immediately available, should be
against the need for fluids. Should some water stored inside. All other stores must be con-
be available in an uninsulated canteen during centrated, well marked, covered, and left out-
a survival situation, this should be warmed side. On the other hand, some perishables
under the clothing or in the sleeping bag. Then which are difficult to preserve in summer may
snow may be added to the canteen after each be kept during the winter months in a natural
drink to replace the water consumed. Body “deepfreeze” over an extended period of time.
heat stored in the slightly warmed water will In areas where permafrost exists, a hole can
56 AGO 8641A
be dug or blasted out and then covered with as empty cardboard boxes, tent or sled covers,
insulating material, such as boughs. A con- waterproof bags or ponchos can be utilized to
stant low temperature can thus be maintained. protect the weapons from rain, dust, and fall-
a. Rifle Stand and Hanging of Weapon. In ing or drifting snow. When weapons are hung
wooded terrain a weapon rack may be built outside on stacked skis, or suspended above
from poles placed in a horizontal position and the snow in some other manner, they are hung
covered with boughs (fig. 3-24). When boughs with the muzzle down to keep falling or blow-
are not available, various other materials such ing snow out of the barrel and working parts.
1'S.Q %— $\Q l3
b. Ski Racks and Stacking of Skis. Care of been secured between two growing trees
skis in the field is highly important because horizontal position (fig. 3–24). In open areas,
unit and individual mobility depends upon skis are simply stuck upright or stacked in
them. If left lying on the snow in the bivouac the snow as described in appendix C.
area the bindings and running surfaces will c. Sleds. Sleds are placed on their sides or
freeze and render the skis unusable for a long on end outside. If loaded sleds are left on the
period of time, or they may be entirely lost snow, sticks, poles, or branches are laid under
under drifting snow. Therefore, the skis and the runners to prevent them from freezing to
ski poles are placed on an improvised ski rack the snow. Heavy cargo sleds, 1-ton or larger,
made of one or two long poles which have must be placed on top of heavy poles or logs
TAGO 8641A 57
-1.
MIUE
2o-eocw
StSc3. rQ
due to the fact that sled runners remain hot colder regions is based on the same principles
after extensive usage and tend to settle into as in temperate climates. The extremes in cli-
the snow and become frozen, making move- mate and weather, however, make the problem
ment of the sled difficult the following day. more acute. The wastes that present constant
d. Vehicles. Vehicles are driven under a big and real problems are human excreta, gar-
tree or in lee of a shelter or snowdrift. Ve- bage, and trash.
hicles should be parked so the least amount of (1) In bivouac areas, pit or “cross-tree”
snow can get into the engines and parked on type latrines are used for the disposal
brush, logs, dry ground, or other surfaces not of human waste (fig. 3-25). One la-
liable to thaw from heat of tires and tracks trine will usually serve the needs of
and refreeze. individuals occupying 3 to 4 shelters,
e. Ammunition and Fuel. Ammunition and or a unit of platoon size. The latrine
fuel are stored separately outside. Ammuni- is placed downwind from the bivouac,
tion boxes should be stacked off the groung in but not so far from the shelters as
a dry place and covered with canvas or boughs. to encourage invididuals to break
In order to locate stacks if snow-covered, a sanitary discipline. Ration boxes or
pole should be erected near them. Boughs or similar material should be used to
poles are placed under fuel containers to pre- collect waste. A urinal, designated for
vent them from freezing to the snow. each shelter, should be located within
4 to 5 meters (4 to 5 yards) of the
3-58. Field Sanitation shelter. A windbreak of boughs, tar-
a. Waste Disposal. Field sanitation in the paulins, ponchos, or snow wall should
58 AGO 8641A
be constructed to protect the latrine (2) All trash and garbage dumps should
from the wind. be marked with appropriate signs to
warn troops who might occupy these
(2) When breaking bivouac, the human disposal sites at a later time.
waste that has accumulated in the
latrine will be burned or buried. All (3) Strict camouflage of all trash and
closed latrine sites, tactical situation garbage is essential. Dark trash on
permitting, will be clearly marked. the white snow is easily seen from
the air. Glittering tin cans or bottles
b. Trash and Garbage Disposal. may be seen by the enemy. Trash
(1) In winter the edible portion of food and garbage should be placed under
waste may be collected in receptacles any available cover and camouflaged
and disposed of by burial in the snow with snow, branches, or other ma-
at a safe distance from the bivouac. terials.
Every effort should be made to burn c. Rats and Mice. Rats and mice will be
the bulk of the trash and garbage. found in most of the habitable cold regions
During seasons and in locations of the earth. They are a definite menace to
where bears are found, all edible health and property and should be kept under
garbage should be burned to avoid strict control. Rat poisons or traps should be
attracting bears to campsites. used when available.
AGO 8641A 59
CHAPTER 4
Section I. INTRODUCTION
4-1. Purpose and Scope
By using snowshoes, individual mo-
a. The purpose of this chapter is to provide bility will be restored to a point ap-
information concerning— proximately equal to that of foot
(1) Techniques used in military skiing movement on hard ground. Skis, on
and snowshoeing. the other hand, provide individual mo-
(2) Application of these techniques to fa- bility usually exceeding that possible
cilitate the oversnow mobility of on foot.
troops engaged in military operations. b. Need for Certain Techniques.
b. This chapter also describes- (1) During cross-country marches and in
combat the soldier on skis or snow-
(1) Equipment available for military ski- shoes will be required to negotiate
ing and snowshoeing. various types of terrain conditions.
(2) Maintenance and care of that equip- He will be moving and operating in
ment. different weather and snow condi-
tions. Carrying a rucksack-and a wea-
4--2. General Considerations pon, he will be required to move in
a. The Need for Individual Mobility. forests, over open terrain, uphill and
(1) Warfare in snow-covered areas re- downhill, and often while pulling a
quires oversnow mobility off the sled.
roads. Well-trained ski and snowshoe (2) In order to execute his mission with
troops are a definite asset on the the least wasted effort, the soldier
snow-covered battlefield. In deep snow must apply the proper techniques of
(61 cm (2') or greater in depth) the skiing and snowshoeing required for
individual has almost no mobility the various conditions under which
without the aid of skis or snowshoes. he will operate.
Troops on skis attain mobility, are not c. Use of Oversnow Equipment to Achieve
roadbound, and are able to move cross- Mobility.
country over all types of snow- (1) The means available to the individual
covered terrain. They are ideally soldier for obtaining oversnow mo-
suited for reconnaissance, security bility are skis and snowshoes. When
missions, and deep penetration patrols operating in snow-covered terrain the
conducting unconventional type op- soldier must be equipped with either
erations. Aggressive action can be skis or snowshoes at all times. Using
carried out with advantage against skis, he is normally able to execute
the enemy flanks, rear, or communi- long marches with less effort and in
cation lines by lightly equipped, fast- less time than when using snowshoes.
moving troops on skis. Cross-country movement by soldiers
(2) Deep snow hinders movement on foot. on skis can be facilitated by towing
60 AGO 8641A
the skiers with tracked vehicles or gently rolling terrain while individu-
animals (skijoring). Snowshoes are als are carrying a rifle and loaded
more suitable than skis in confined rucksack.
areas, when working close to heavy 3W .Ot€3S I.Oq
weapons, or when training time is jooç (JGa JJULI 30GW 1-3 why 1i—3 why
limited. 0 2JJOM)
(2) Rates of movement over snow-covered uo auoit)
(1%)
tooc (0A6L 30GW (i) j— why ii—s why
terrain cannot be given in exact time ?UO1A2J10611J j— why s-si why
requirements. They vary in each situ- 2JcnIJ - i.Pv
I3I why a—si why
ation. However, as a guide, the fol- avfloLwt
- 2—12 why
lowing rates are listed. Rates are (q6h6uqpJt
given for movement over flat or 011 6LLB11)
'—• cSQ.%
s%zn.Q •t—w 8 ob
mostly found during the spring, as well as in spring, when abnorm-
but it may also occur in the fall ally low temperatures occur. This
or late winter, particularly in re- snow is light and fluffy. It cannot
gions of moderate climate. This be compressed into a snowball un-
type of snow can be readily made less the snow is made moist by
into a heavy, solid snowball. In ex- holding it in the hand. At extreme-
treme conditions, wet snow will be- ly low temperatures, such as those
come slushy and contain a maxi- found in the far northern regions,
mum amount of water. this snow is like sand, and has very
(b) Moist snow. This type of snow is poor sliding qualities.
generally associated with early (d) New snow. This is snow which is
winter, but may also occur in mid- still falling or has recently fallen
winter during a sudden warmup on the ground, but has not been
period. This type of snow can be subject to changes due to the sun
made into a snowball, but will not or temperature variation. It can be
compress as readily or be as heavy wet, moist, or dry in nature.
as a wet snowball. It will have a c. Proper Selection and Application of
tendency to fall apart. Waxes. Cross-country ski waxes are formulated
(c) Dry snow. This type of snow is gen- to provide optimum sliding and climbing char-
erally associated with winter at its acteristics for various types of snow conditions.
height, but it can occur in late fall Each type is labeled with appropriate instruc-
68 AGO 8641A
tions on its intended use, i.e., wet, moist or used. Do not place the running sur-
dry snow conditions. Since the types of wax faces of skis on snow immediately
vary between manufacturers, no particular after waxing if heat is used or if wax-
type of wax can be prescribed for each classi- ing is done in a heated room or shelter
fication of snow; however, the instructions on as the snow may stick and freeze to
each container specifies the weather conditions the running surface. For the same
and type of snow where performance of the reason protect the running surfaces
wax is best. Proper application of all waxes against wind driven snow. To insure
is important to achieve desired results whether that wax is properly chosen and ap-
they be traction or sliding action. As a general plied, the skis should be tested before
rule, the wax that gives the best sliding sur- being used on an extended march.
face for all types of snow provides an excellent
base for application of other waxes. To pro-
vide traction, varying amounts, combinations,
and methods of application of other waxes are
used. When pulling a sled or carrying a heavy
load, thicker coats of wax may be required to
insure traction.
d. Waxing Procedure.
(1) Whenever possible, the waxing of
skis should be done before the march
when shelter and heat are available,
as the running surface of the ski
should be warm and dry to obtain
best results. When on the march, ski
wax should be carried in the pockets,
if possible, so that body heat will
keep the wax soft and easy to use.
If the skis need waxing during the
march, the running surfaces are
dried as much as possible by the use
of paper or dry mittens. Whenever
possible, old wax should be removed
before rewaxing skis particularly
when a different type of wax is being
used. Refer to paragraph 4-9 b (1) for
proper method for removing old wax.
(2) To apply, cover the running surface
with wax. Next, smooth the wax by
rubbing it with the hand, using the
heel of the palm or the fingers (fig.
4-7), a waxing cork, or a heated iron.
When heat is available, this process
can be made easier by warming the
wax that has been applied. It is norm-
ally best to work progressively on a _st $—\. ooI 1u oottQ o\ xir
section at a time, from the ski tip
towards the heel. If the waxing is
done in a shelter, or heat is used, the 4-11. Care of Ski Equipment
skis should be allowed to cool to out- a. General.
side air temperature before being (1) A broken ski or binding may put a
AGO 8641A 69
soldier at the mercy of the enemy and ditions are determined in the morn-
the elements and prevent him from ing or shortly prior to departure.
accomplishing his mission. If the After maintenance of skis is com-
soldier keeps his skis and equipment pleted, they should be placed in-
in good condition, he will find that doors, preferably in a ski rack (fig.
ski marches are easier and less tiring 4-8). Under field conditions, skis
and that he will not be the cause of are placed in an improvised ski
any unnecessary delays and halts by rack, planted upright in the snow
his unit. Care of ski equipment is the or stacked.
responsibility of the individual sol- (b) Bindings. Insure that all straps,
dier—he must check it before start- buckles, screws and rivets are pres-
ing out on a mission, during breaks, ent and in good condition. Replace
and when in bivouac. At least once a parts which are unserviceable. If
week the ski equipment should be necessary, readjust the fit of the
thoroughly checked by unit leaders. bindings.
During combat the inspection must (c) Poles. Check wrist straps, hand-
be done whenever the situation per- grips, shafts, baskets, and points to
mits. insure that they are in good con-
(2) Skis must be checked for proper base dition. Broken parts should be re-
of pine tar, evidence of possible warp- placed at the first opportunity.
ing and splitting, loss of camber, de- Temporary repairs can be made
fective edges, and broken steel edge with wire, cord, or tape.
sections or screws. At the same time (2) When snow cover is comparatively
bindings must be checked for worn thin, be careful not to damage the
straps, missing rivets and screws, and skis while skiing in rocky or stumpy
proper adjustment. Ski poles should terrain. Sometimes there is water
be checked to insure that wrist straps, under the snow cover on frozen rivers
handgrips, baskets, and points are or lakes. Try to cross them at a dry
firmly fastened and that no breakage place; make an improvised hasty
has occurred. bridge from trees or boughs, if time
b. Daily Care. permits. If the skis become wet dur-
(1) After each day's use, the skis and the ing a crossing of water, the ice which
skiing equipment should be checked forms on the skis must be removed
and necessary repairs made by the in- after reaching the bank. A long
dividual as follows: march or sudden change in tempera-
(a) Skis. Remove any snow or ice that ture may require rewaxing of skis
has frozen to the ski. This may be during the march. When skis are re-
done with heat. If heat is not avail- moved, do not leave them on the snow.
able, this can be done with a mit- It may stick and freeze on the run-
ten, wooden stick, or piece of metal. ning surface. Remove the snow from
Check the heels and tips of the skis the skis and stack them beside the ski
for cracks. Badly cracked skis must tracks or lean the skis against a tree.
be replaced, as they are weakened A ski stack can be built by each squad.
and break easily. At the same time, c. Repair.
check for and replace defective or (1) General. Repair of unserviceable ski
missing edges and screws. The con- equipment requires qualified person-
dition of ski bottoms is then nel with necessary tools and facili-
checked and, if needed, additional ties, Therefore, the soldier will only
pine tar or base wax is applied. The be permitted to make emergency re-
surface waxing for the next day’s pairs such as replacing bindings,
march is deferred until snow con- screws, and steel edges.
AGO 8641A
•YIUAtVI tu
.iwI1flWi
I __________________________________
io Itb o\
(2) Emergency repair. The repair of ski
equipment under field conditions is
emergency repair. In many cases
broken skis or worn out parts of ski
equipment must be replaced. To fa-
cilitate this, the following arrange-
ments are necessary:
(a) Every unit should have replace-
ment skis, bindings, and poles.
There should also be available, ski
repair kits, pine tar or lacquer, and
waxes.
(b) Every squad should have one emer-
gency ski tip (fig. 4-9 ) and each
platoon, one ski repair kit.
(c) Every man should have the follow-
ing in his possession at all times:
1. Emergency thong.
2. Pocketknife.
3. Piece of light wire (malleable) or
nylon cord.
(3) Combat repair. During combat, the
most suitable time for maintenance s%zn. t—' *U £ñ'
and repair of skis and ski equipment
is when the unit is in reserve. procedures will damage this equip-
d. Storage. ment, making it unserviceable.
(1) Proper storing of skis and skiing (2) When the skiing season is over, skis
equipment is most important , during and poles are turned in by the using
off seasons. Improper care in storage unit for storage. Before doing so, the
AGO 8641A 71
skis must be cleaned and old waxes
removed.
218Yb—
(3) Skis and poles are then checked
thoroughly. Those in good condition
are separated from those in need of 'c Ii
repair or salvage. Necessary repairs
are made. Ski bindings are not re-
moved. All skis should be pine-tarred II
or lacquered. If needed, skis are re-
painted. Skilled personnel are needed
for repairing skis and poles and for
escw-fl
preparing them for storage.
(4) In further preparation, the skis are LJ\
tied together by matching pairs ac-
cording to their factory markings not
unit markings. A piece of string or 11 't'
cord is used to tie the skis at their
tips and heels with running surfaces II\\
facing each other. A wooden block
(waxing cork may be used) is then
placed-between the skis at the metal
toe plates. The correct spread is about
6 to 8 cm (2” to 3“). After being
Mocked, the skis are stored in a verti-
cal position, with the tips down. If
1
the skis must be stored horizontally,
they should be supported at both ends ocvt *tI
and at the middle, with the end sup-
ports on the top side of the ski and the I
middle support beneath and arranged
so that tension is maintained on the
camber. Each ski should be supported
individually when stored horizontally.
The storage room should be dry with
V
an even temperature and good venti-
lation (fig. 4-10).
(5) After ski poles are checked, repaired,
and reconditioned, they should be
placed in the same storage area as
the skis.
4-12. Basic Movement
a. General. In moving on skis for the first ;
time, most beginners find that skis are awk-
ward to handle due to the difficulty of obtain-
ing the necessary balance and coordination. To
overcome these difficulties, the first instruc-
tional phase is devoted to step turns and walk-
ing on level ground in order to obtain the bal-
ance, correct body position, coordination, and
7LOW W6 bOJf1OU JIG LjJ1
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rhythm necessary in skiing. In addition, this —w 'tb ucur
72 AGO 8641A
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this reason, it is important that he practice
all techniques with and without the use of ski
poles. This is especially important in the begin-
ning stages of skiing, as practice without ski
poles will aid in learning proper transfer of
body weight, balance, timing, and control of
the skis.
4-13. Step Turn
a. Use. The step is the simplest means of
changing direction from a standing position.
It is particularly valuable in brushy and
wooded terrain (fig. 4-11).
b. Technique.
(1) From the standing position the right
(left) ski tip is raised, the ski is ro-
tated to the right (left) side, using
3 ya 4JJ6 jqç jq boJG uJj ponyç u jouaq the heel of the ski as a pivot.
4}J6 J6I çJJG GCJ6 i cowbJGsq (2) The ski is placed on the snow and
t——coJJu1,6q the body weight shifted onto it.
(3) The left (right) ski is moved along
basic movement is a means of forming the side the right (left) in the same man-
foundation for further instruction. Ski drill ner.
techniques are covered in appendix C. (4) Each pole is raised, moved, and placed
b. Skiing Without Poles. The soldier will with the corresponding ski (i.e., right
find that in performing duties, especially in ski, right pole).
combat, he will be required to ski either with (5) The same movement is repeated until
poles carried in one hand or without poles. For the desired direction is obtained.
AGO 8641A 73
(6) In confined areas it may be necessary
to use the tip of the ski instead of the
heel as a pivot point. In turning to
the right (left) the heel of the left
(right) ski is raised off the snow and
moved to the left of its original posi-
tion. Then the right (left) ski is
moved alongside the left (right) ski
and this sequence repeated until the
desired direction is achieved.
4-14. Kick Turn
a. Use. The kick turn is a method for re-
versing the direction of a skier when in a
standing position. It is used on both flat and
steep terrain. In combat, it is also useful to
conceal a change of direction in a ski track jp6 J4p4 jq 4JJ6II aMnU OLMøL uq p6 pe€j
(fig. 4-12). bc6q ii
ajq ;ib
uo sbbLox!wJ 6AGIJ !CJ' tp6
b. Technique.
(1) Beginning in the standing position
with skis level, the left (right ) pole
is placed alongside the left (right)
ski approximately 45 to 60 cm (18"
to 24") in front of the toe of the foot.
At the same time the right (left) pole
is placed alongside the right (left)
ski about 45 to 60 cm (18" to 24")
behind the heel of the foot.
t—% Q3 8Qb
4'(O dY
leg, in a continuous rhythmic motion, ing from alternate feet. The step is made in
to produce a long glide on the right the same manner as the two step except that
ski. two walking steps are taken before each lunge.
(3) While gliding on the right ski, the
left ski is brought slowly forward and 4-18. Variations and Applications of Ski
even with the other ski to complete Steps
the first two step and in preparation a. In long, cross-country movement, parti-
of the next two step. This action cularly when skiing with pack and rifle, it is
should be started before the momen- most important to apply techniques properly
tum of the glide has been lost. according to the terrain to insure that energy
(4) As the first step is made, both ski is spent wisely and conserved as much as possi-
poles are brought straight to the front ble. To this end, the individual must attempt
in a comfortable reach and set into to obtain as much glide as possible from his
the snow alongside the skis in coordi- skis during each step. Although lasting only
nation with the lunge of the second for a short moment, the glide will allow the
step. skier to rest temporarily. In addition, all
(5) The pushing action with the poles is movements must be made in a relaxed manner,
applied in the same manner as de- which necessitates continuous individual train-
scribed above in using one pole. As ing. The constant use of the same step is monot-
the poles leave the snow, they are onous and increases fatigue. To avoid this,
brought forward in a straight line in various steps are used temporarily. The same
preparation for the execution of the effect is also necessary in poling. In order to
next step. It is most important to time relax arm and shoulder muscles, a series of
this motion properly to coordinate steps may be made without poling. In the one
with the next lunge. step, for instance, the first two steps can be
c. Three Step. In addition to the two step, made without using the poles. Any additional
the three step may be used anytime when combination of steps and poling may be made
changing ski steps and when sliding is poor. at one’s discretion for the same reason, placing
The initial steps are intended to produce more more emphasis on leg rather than arm work,
initial power. It has an advantage over the or vice versa.
two step since it allows double poling and lung- b. In bumpy terrain, ski steps and poling
AGO 8641A 77
may be used individually or in various com- quick stop to avoid hitting an object.
binations to provide a strong pushoff to provide When properly used, it can be accom-
the skier with sufficient glide for a continuous plished without injury to the indi-
motion through a dip and over a bump. When vidual.
a series of bumps and dips is encountered, the (2) Unintentional falls. Unintentional
poling action is generally applied on the crest falls are undesirable and may cause
of the first bump in order to obtain sufficient serious injury. Other undesirable re-
momentum to reach the top of the next bump sultsof an unintentional fall are in-
in a continuous glide. A step supported by creased fatigue, possible frostbite, and
double poling may be applied when skiing holes in the snow which may cause
through the dip. There are other situations other skiers to fall. Factors which
where double poling may be applied to gain may contribute to unintentional falls
or increase forward motion of the ski without are poor skiing ability, lack of con-
taking a step. trol, snow conditions, fatigue, and ex-
cessive speeds.
4-19. Falling b. Technique of Falling.
a. General. In military skiing there are two (1) If a fall is imminent, an attempt is
types of falls, controlled and unintentional. made to relax, lower the body, and to
(1) Controlled falls. The controlled fall land sideways and to the rear.
has definite value. It can be used to (2) While falling, an attempt should be
avoid excessive speed or to avoid hit- made to stretch the body, to extend
ting obstacles if other means are not the arms and to keep the ski poles
possible. The controlled fall can be to the rear (fig. 4-15). Care should
done safely only at slow to moderate be taken to keep the knees from dig-
speeds. It is used to take cover quick- ging into the snow, as such action is
ly, assume a firing position or for a a major cause of injury.
(3) The impact of the fall should be ab- (2) If necessary, the pack and other re-
sorbed by the hips or buttocks. strictive loads are removed.
(4) The unintentional fall is avoided as (3) Skis are untangled and brought paral-
much as possibie. It is often prevented lel, feet together. Knees are pulled up
by the correction of a faulty ski or to bring the skis close to the body.
body position. The body is then moved forward and
(5) Landing directly on a knee or hand raised, pushing with the pole if as-
must be avoided since the resulting sistance is needed.
blow may cause serious injury. This (4) To use the ski poles, both hands are
is especially serious in heavy wet first removed from the straps. The
snow or breakable crust because the poles are then placed together with
extended arm or knee may penetrate baskets in the snow slightly to the
and be locked firmly in place before rear, grasped with one hand above
the body has lost momentum. the basket, palm facing downward,
(6) Although falling or “sitting down” and with the other hand close to the
with the skis facing downhill is the top, palm facing upward.
preferred method, occasionally a fall (5) The procedure for recovery from a
“over the tips” cannot be avoided. The fall on a slope is the same except that
important thing to remember is RE- the skis are placed below the body
LAX. and perpendicular (at right angles)
to the fall line. To obtain this posi-
c. Recovery. tion it may be necessary to roll onto
(1) To recover from a fall, the skier the back, lifting the skis in the air
must first figure out what to do before and then in the proper position. Poles
attempting to rise. A little planning are then used as described on the up-
will save time and energy. hill side (fig. 4-15).
AGO 8641A 79
4-20. Straight Uphill Climbing weight placed upon it. The upper ski
a. Use. Straight uphill climbing is a method pole is moved at the same time and
of ascending gentle and moderate slopes. placed above and alongside this ski.
b. Technique.
(1) Take the first step as in walking the
body leaning forward with knees well
bent.
(2) On gentle slopes, slide the skis for-
ward without lifting them from the
snow. On steeper slopes, more knee
bend is required which causes a trans-
fer of body weight. It may become
necessary to lift the ski as the step
is made, and to place it with a stampi-
ng action upon the snow. This will
give the ski wax better holding quali-
ties because it will not break down
the snow crystals by first sliding over
them.
(3) Use the ski poles to assist the body
in its uphill movement and to mini-
mize backslip.
(4) The degree of slope which may be
ascended using this method is limited
by the holding characteristics of the
wax used. With repeated backslapping
of the skis, the slope should be tra-
versed thereby decreasing the angle
of climb, or a different method of 5t.Q •
climbing should be used.
The lower ski is then moved up as
4-21. Sidestep close as possible to the uphill ski,
a. Use. The sidestep is an effective method while the skier is supported by a push
of climbing a short, steep slope, where space on the lower pole. This pole is then
is confined; it may be the only practical means brought up and placed alongside the
of ascending slopes. It is also useful for step- lower ski. This completes one cycle
ping sideways over logs, stumps, and other of the sidestep. Merely repeat until
obstacles. the desired elevation is reached.
b. Technique.
4-22. Uphill Traverse
(1) The skis are placed together and per-
pendicular (at right angles) to the a. Use. This method of climbing is used
slope (fall line). To prevent slipping when the slope becomes too steep for going
sideways, the uphill edges of both skis straight uphill. Although a traverse generally
are forced into the snow by pushing involves a zigzag route, it will often be the
both knees forward and toward the least tiring method of ascending, thereby con-
slope. Avoid leaning into the slope. serving time and energy.
Initially, the weight of the body is b. Technique.
placed on the lower ski. (1) An angle of ascent is selected which
(2) The uphill is lifted in a sideways step will allow climbing without backslip.
up the slope (fig. 4-16) and the body (2) The skis are edged into the slope on
80 AGO 8641A
each step with the ski poles used as
in straight uphill climbing.
(8) In changing the direction of ascent
a kick turn or a herringbone turn,
(para 4-24d) can be utilized. Long
traverses should be used whenever
possible, since elevation is gained
more effectively and with less expen-
diture of energy in this manner.
4-23. Sidestep Traverse
a. Use. This step is a combination of a side-
step and the uphill traverse. It allows greater
vertical climb in each traverse.
b. Technique.
(1) The movement is the same as in the
uphill traverse, except the ski is
raised slightly and placed uphill as it
is brought forward with each step.
(2) The skis are kept parallel and edged,
as in the sidestep.
(3) The ski poles are moved in the same
sequence as in the sidestep. I .IJ4UpOUG
4-24. Herringbone
a. Use. The herringbone is used to climb
short, moderate, or steep slopes. It provides
a quicker ascent than the sidestep. It is more
tiring and should be used only for relatively
short ascents.
b. Technique.
(1) The body is faced uphill with skis
spread to form a wide V. This is ob-
tained by spreading both ski tips out-
ward. The skis are edged sharply in-
ward, to prevent backslip, by bending
the knees forward and inward (fig.
4-17).
(2) The first step is made by placing the
weight on one ski, raising the other
slightly above the snow and moving
it forward and upward. This ski is
then placed in the snow, edged in-
ward, and the body weight trans-
ferred to it. The other ski is then
moved in the same manner and
placed slightly ahead. H'1 pGJJ1JJpOU6
(3) The ski poles are used in the same
manner as the sidestep, except they asbI.t.Q t—h• -!Q3..flS%9O3tS
b. Technique.
(1) The basic position is that of straight
downhill running, except that the up-
hill shoulder and ski is always slightly
advanced and most of the weight is
on the lower ski.
(2) Stand directly over the skis and avoid 't—w osboi
leaning into the slope. Both skis be-
ing edged into the slope.
forward in the direction of the ski
(3) If more edging is needed, it is con- tips, causing the skis to be edged
trolled by knee and ankle action, and slightly inward. The heels are kept
is kept even and constant. constantly on the skis while con-
(4) The ski poles are held as in the tinuous outward heel pressure upon
straight downhill positions. the skis is applied.
4-27. Snowplow (c) The upper part of the body and the
ski poles are held as in the straight
a. Use. The snowplow is a means for con- downhill running position.
trolling and slowing down forward motion in (d) To increase the braking action,
all types of terrain. In gentle or moderate ter- the skis are moved into a wider V
rain it can be used for-stopping. The snowplow and edged more.
uses fundamental positions which are employed
for furthering other skiing techniques (fig. 4- (2) Half snowplow.
20). (a) When only one ski is brought into
snowplow position, this is referred
b. Techniques. to as a half snowplow. The half
(1) From straight downhill running. snowplow is used in confined areas
(a) To move into a snowplow, both and in traversing where a full
heels are pushed outward evenly, snowplow is impractical for brak-
keeping the ski tips even and close ing action. It is also used in con-
together, forcing the skis to form junction with basic and advanced
a wide V. turns.
(b) The body weight is kept even on (b) This motion is executed by pushing
both skis. The knees are bent well only one ski outward in the snow-
AGO 8641A 83
plow position described above. fined areas where ability to control descent is
Braking action is controlled by the limited by snow conditions, terrain features,
degree of weight placed on this ski or obstacles. Two different methods are used
and the amount of edging applied. (fig. 4-22).
It is important that the ski be edged
to a pronounced degree on the in-
side to eliminate the possibility of
“catching” an outside edge.
(3) The snowplow while traversing down-
hill.
(a) To move into a snowplow from a
downhill traverse, the body weight
is shifted momentarily to the up-
hill ski. The lower ski is then moved
downhill into a half snowplow po-
sition by dropping the tail and
keeping the ski tips in the same
relative positions and edging slight-
ly. The body weight is then trans-
ferred back onto this lower ski. Ad-
ditional braking action can be ob-
tained by increasing the edging of
this ski and placing more weight
on it. To complete the snowplow,
the upper ski is flattened and push-
ed uphill in full V (fig. 4-21).
I 2cLJPI qoupj
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right ski is then raised and placed on
the snow in the new direction. The
weight is transferred to this ski by
moving the body in the new direction
while pushing off from the left ski.
The unweighted left ski is then lifted
off the snow, and placed close to the
right ski to complete the turn. Comp-
lete transfer of body weight is es-
sential, and the movements must
"I,, follow smoothly and almost simul-
taneously. The ski poles are held to
the rear (fig. 4-25). The higher the
speed, the more the center of gravity
is lowered by bending the knees and
ankles. This adds stability and aids
in keeping up with the turn.
— k
90 AGO 8641A
the right ski and the turn completed b. Technique.
from the fall line as in the uphill (1) The turn is started by applying either
christiania.
of the methods described for chris-
(2) As more skills and balance are ac- tiania turns, except that the speed is
quired, the snowplow christiania may adjusted to suit the circumstances.
be done at higher speeds with the
angle of turn kept closer to the fall (2) For a turn to the left as the skier
line. In this method only a half approaches the fall line, the left ski
snowplow with the upper or lower ski pole is placed in the snow forward
is used in the preparatory position, and down the slope, but not directly
or skis are kept parallel and the fall in front of the left ski tip. The reach
line is reached with a pronounced should not be overextended. The right
knee bend and forward lean of the pole is held in the normal manner.
body while the turn is completed with Weight is then applied to the left ski
an uphill christiania. pole, using it for means of support
and as a pivot point.
4-35. The Lifted Christiania (3) Body weight is then shifted to the
a. Use. The lifted christiania turn is very right ski. Since it is difficult to turn
useful in adverse snow conditions and in con- the left ski in such a short radius,
fined terrain where a short radius turn is neces- this ski is lifted and placed parallel
sary. It is also useful for skiing at night and to, and slightly ahead of, the right
with heavy loads, since it is a slow turn made ski, and the turn completed as in the
with one ski pole being used to increase uphill christiania.
lateral stability.
t—W
(2) Bearpaw. This type of snowshoe is 4-37. Care and Storage of Snowshoes
short, wide, and oval in shape, with
no frame extension (fig. 4-30). The a. Care. Snowshoes must always be kept in
bearpaw snowshoe is preferable to the good condition. Frequent checks are necessary,
trail type for close work with weapons particularly of webbing and binding, because
and vehicles, in heavy brush, and in individual strands may be ripped or worn out.
other confined areas. Carrying or Repairs must be made immediately, otherwise
storing is also easier. the webbing will loosen and start to unravel. If
(3) Magnesium. The magnesium snow- unvarnished, the rawhide webbing on wooden
shoe is the lightest and most durable snowshoes will absorb moisture, stretch and
of the three types (fig. 4-31). The turn white, particularly in wet snow. It should
snowshoe has a magnesium frame be dried out slowly, avoiding direct flames, and
with the center section made of steel, be revarnished at the first opportunity. Wooden
nylon-coated wire. The magnesium frames may fray from hard wear and should
snowshoe is 17.70 cm (approx 7") be sanded and varnished. When needed, other
shorter than the standard wooden minor repairs should be made as soon as
trail snowshoe but is 9.50 cm (approx practicable. When snow cover is shallow, care
4") wider giving it approximately must be taken not to step on small tree stumps,
the same flotation characteristics. branches, or other obstacles, since the webbing
may be broken or damaged. Stepping into wa-
e. The trail and bearpaw snowshoes have ter is to be avoided; the water will freeze and
their own individual bindings, however, the, snow will stick to it. When not in use in the
92 AGO 8641A
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AGO 8641A 93
field, snowshoes are placed in temporary
racks, hung in trees, or placed upright in the
snow. They should be kept away from open
fires and out of reach of rodents.
b. Storage. In off-seasons, wooden snowshoes
are stored in a dry, well-ventilated place so
that the rawhide will not mildew or rot and
the frames warp. Each snowshoe is closely
checked for possible damage, repaired if need-
ed, and revarnished. As in the field, snowshoes
are protected against damage and from rodents.
Magnesium snowshoes are cleaned and repaint-
ed if necessary. Webbing is examined and re-
paired or replaced if needed.
snowshoe.
b. On gentle slopes, ascent is made by climb- %st '— c cui o
ing straight upward. Traction is generally
very poor on hard-packed or crusty snow. snow there is danger of catching and tearing
Steeper terrain is ascended by traversing and the webbing on tree stumps or snags which
packing a trail similar to a shelf across it. are only sightly covered. Wet snow will fre-
When climbing, the snowshoe is placed as hori- quently ball up under the feet, interfering with
zontally as possible in the snow. On hard snow, comfortable walking. This snow should be
the snowshoe is placed flat on the surface knocked off with a stick or pole as soon as
with the toe of the upper one diagonally uphill possible. Although ski poles are generally not
to get more traction. In the event the snow is used in snowshoeing, one or two poles are
sufficiently hard-frozen to support the weight desirable when carrying heavy loads, especially
of a person, it is generally better to remove the in mountainous terrain. The bindings must
snowshoes and proceed temporarily on foot. In not be fastened too tightly or circulation will
turning around, the best method is to swing be cut off, and frostbite may occur. During
the leg up and turn in the new direction, as halts, bindings should be checked for fit and
in making a kick turn on skis (fig. 4-33). possible readjustment.
c. Obstacles such as logs, tree stumps,
ditches and small streams should be stepped 4-39. Training
over. Care must be taken not to place too much Snowshoe training requires little technical
strain on the snowshoe ends by bridging a skill. However, emphasis must be placed on the
gap, since the frame may break. In shallow physical conditioning of the individual and the
94 AGO 8641A
development of muscles which are seldom used ing the distance covered and weight carried or
in ordinary marching. The technique, as such, pulled. Overcoming obstacles such as dense
can be learned in a few periods of instruction. brush, fallen timber, and ditches should be
Stiffness and soreness of muscles are to be ex- emphasized during training. Trailbreaking,
pected at first. The initial training should be with frequent change of lead man, should also
gradual with regard to loads carried and be stressed. Snowshoe training can be accom-
distances covered. It should be progressive, plished concurrently with other training re-
with ample time allowed for the individual to quiring individual cross-country movement.
acquire physical proficiency, gradually increas-
154-616 O - 94- 4
position. However, if the slope is rutted snow- be reduced if skis are removed while overcom-
plowing may become hazardous because the ing the obstacles.
tips tend to get caught. To control speed under b. Fences and Windfalls. Low fences and
these conditions, sideslipping and pole riding windfalls 30 to 60 cm high (1'to 2') are
may be used. Pole riding is less effective and in crossed by skiing or snowshoeing beside the
extreme cases the use of sideslipping may be- obstacle so that the skis or snowshoes are
come necessary. On icy snow the skis may parallel and alongside it, then stepping over
chatter in a turn. To correct this, body weight first with one foot then the other, or a kick
is kept well forward and the edging of the turn may be made over the obstacle. In the
skis carefully controlled as the turn is made. case of rail fences or large diameter windfalls
Crusty snow which will not support the skier’s it may sometimes be easier to sit on the ob-
weight (breakable crust) is the most difficult stacle and swing both feet simultaneously to
to cope with. Speed is kept slower while mak- the other side. High barbed wire fences can be
ing all turns. It may become necessary to use crossed by removing pack and rifle and crawl-
the step turn in motion or a kick turn to change ing underneath (fig. 4-35).
direction.
c. Ditches or Small Streams. These are
d. Forest. Due to the limited skiing room crossed by stepping over them sideways, using
in wooded terrain, movements for changing the ski poles for support (fig. 4-35). If the
direction must be rapid and of shorter radius ditches are deep and wide it is better to descend
than in open terrain, especially during down- to the bottom either by sidestepping or side-
hill movement. In addition, the skier must be slipping and then climb the other side by
more alert so that obstacles may be quickly sidestepping. However, care must be taken to
overcome with a minimum of delay. The step avoid rocks or other obstacles which might
turn in motion is a very useful technique for damage the skis or snowshoes.
changing direction in this type of terrain, but
speed must be reduced to use this technique. d. Steep Slopes. When it is necessary for
In descending narrow trails in wooded terrain troops to descend or ascend slopes which are
or during night movements, the half snowplow too steep for their ability, or where traversing
or pole riding are useful for control of speed. is not practical, the sidestep should be used or
During unit movement in wooded terrain, one the skis should be removed and the slope ne-
man falling can block the progress of all per- gotiated on foot whenever snow depth will per-
sonnel behind him. If an individual falls he mit.
should remove himself from the track in the
fastest way possible, even if this results in los- 4-42. Skiing With Pack and Weapon
ing his original position in the column. The a. General. When skiing with pack and
baskets of ski poles have a tendency to snag weapon the same techniques apply. However,
branches during movement in wooded terrain, the added weight carried, changes the center
resulting in loss of balance. To avoid this as of gravity and will affect the manner in which
much as possible, the shafts of the ski poles movements are made.
should be pointed directly to the rear.
b. Effects on Movements.
4-41. Obstacles (1) Lunges are shorter and pushes with
a. General. Snow-covered terrain will contain poles less powerful.
many small obstacles such as fences, tree (2) To aid in maintaining balance when
windfalls, and small streams or ditches. The skiing downhill over rough terrain, the
individual must be skilled enough to cross them leading ski is advanced farther and
easily to save time and energy. Crossing ob- the knees kept more flexible than
stacles can be very time consuming for a unit. when skiing without a load.
Wherever possible, the men should be dis- (3) Speed of descent is reduced and tech-
persed so as to enable them to cross on a broad niques are applied more cautiously.
front. In some cases the overall time needed can (4) Rotation of arms and shoulders is
96 AGO 8841
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r11 (11
made with less vigor and emphasis. methods of hauling sleds apply to both skiers
(5) Slopes are climbed with a more and snowshoes.
gradual traverse. b. Preparation for Sled Pulling.
(6) When skiing through woods or in (1) The tow ropes must be of the proper
brushy terrain, care must be exercised length and also properly laid out and
in order to prevent any protruding fastened by snap buckles in tandem
parts of the weapon from catching system (fig. 4-36 ). The sled harnesses
on branches, causing loss of balance. are adjusted to fit loosely on the in-
(7) In the event of a fall it is sometimes dividuals.
more efficient to remove the pack and (2) If skis are to be used for pulling, they
weapon before attempting to regain must be properly waxed. More empha-
footing. sis must be placed on insuring good
holding capacity of the wax on the
4-43. Sled Pulling snow. However, sliding capacity
should not be entirely forfeited.
a. General. Pulling a sled is hard work, but
it will be easier if proper techniques are used, (3) Proper loading and lashing of sled
The movements and techniques used should be must be checked before moving out.
within the ability of all members of the team, c. Pulling on Varied Terrain. When pulling
and, where possible, teams should be formed a sled over comparatively flat terrain, skiers
with this in mind. Generally speaking, the normally use the one step ski technique. When
AGO 8641A 97
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21Vb 8flCKT(
the men to move far enough ahead before the
turn is made, the pullers must start the turn
by gradually making as gentle a curve as possi-
2
ble while the two men nearest the sled (in
front and behind) guide, lift, and otherwise
a assist in turning the sled. While turning, the
pullers must watch the movements of each
other in order to avoid confusion.
d. Uphill Climbing. To pull a sled uphill the
following methods can be applied:
Vb flCKfE 1DM Ob (1) On short, gentle slopes the herring-
bone can be used.
D
(2) On a steep, short slope the pullers can
use the sidestep (fig. 4-37). In this
case the rear man moves to the front
. WJJ" LLIJGW6IJ4
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and side of the sled and, while side-
stepping, assists in pulling the sled by
ss'c '—%—ou;pJrz6q' using the rope fastened to the front
end.
crossing small ditches, the sled is stopped in (3) On very gentle slopes and in snow
the ditch while the pullers go as far as the with good traceability an uphill tra-
two ropes allow. Then, by a simultaneous pull, verse may be employed. Ski climbers
the sled is brought up out of the ditch. To can be used if the length of the slope
change direction in woods, the pullers con- justifies the time required to put
tinue to move straight forward until the sled them on.
comes to the desired turning point. The pullers (4) In difficult terrain a relaying tech-
then move in the new direction with the turn nique may be used when the necessary
being controlled by the puller nearest the sled, equipment is available. In this tech-
assisted, if necessary, by the man behind. When nique a climbing rope, 36.50 meters
the forest is dense and space does not allow (120') long, or similar item, is fas-
98 AGO 8641A
I q66b
relay method described in d (4) above, of twos, are spaced at equal intervals
and is a very practical method for behind the vehicle and outside the
evacuating wounded. ropes. A gap of approximately 4
meters (12') is left between indivi-
4-44. Skijoring duals.
a. General. Skijoring, as used in this manual, (2) Several methods of towing can be
is the term applied to moving men on skis used according to the situation, the
over snow by towing them with vehicles. This terrain, and the distance of move-
provides a faster and less tiring method for ment:
individual movement than is possible under (a) The skier grasps a bight of rope
their own locomotion. Oversnow vehicles, track and makes a 25 cm (10") loop by
and wheeled vehicles can be used for pulling tying an overhand knot. The loop
skiers (fig. 4-39 ). The best routes for skijor- is held with one hand and poles
ing are snow covered roads and trails, frozen are held in the other, or a long
lakes, rivers, or paths made by tracked ve- loop can be formed by tying an
hicles. Speeds up to 24 KmPH (15 MPH) may overhand knot in a 1.50 to 2 meter
be maintained on level ground by trained (5' to 7') bight of rope. The skier
troops, depending on weather and trail condi- leans against the loop after placing
tions. Normally, one rifle squad can be towed it around the buttocks. He does not
behind a light carrier and two squads behind place the body through the loop
a squad carrier. Towing more than two squads (1, fig. 4-40).
by one vehicle is impractical, due to the in- (b) Using the ski pole method (2, fig.
creased length of the column, difficulty in mak- 4-40), the skier rests both arms
ing turns, and the limitations of the vehicle and body and can arrive at the
and the skiers using the technique over steep destination in better physical con-
or wooded terrain, and during poor or spotty dition. Another advantage in this
snow conditions. method is that a skier can easily
exercise his hands to prevent frost-
b. Use of Tow Rope. (For a description of bite during movement in extreme
knots see FM 31-72.) cold.
(1) Two ropes 36.50 meters (120') long (c) When being towed through dense
are used for towing a rifle squad be- wooded areas, or when contact with
hind a vehicle and for the purpose of the enemy is imminent, skiers may
securing sufficient space between the simply grasp the rope without ty-
individuals. The skiers, in columns of ing a knot or using the ski poles as
AGO 8641A 101
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