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SERVICES HOT WATER (SHW) PROVISIONS RESEARCH PAPER for COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

For

Australian Building Codes Board

July 2003 Revision 4 Project 16020

TABLE OF CONTENTS REPORT ISSUE AUTHORISATION................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................... 3 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 4 1.1 1.2 1.3 2 BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................................................... 4 OBJECTIVES .......................................................................................................................................... 4 EXCLUSIONS ......................................................................................................................................... 4

SERVICES HOT WATER.......................................................................................................................... 5 2.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 5 2.2 HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT................................................................................................................ 5 2.3 HEATING ENERGY SOURCE ................................................................................................................... 6 2.3.1 Low cost waste heat......................................................................................................................... 6 2.3.2 Non renewable direct fuels .............................................................................................................. 6 2.3.3 Mains electricity .............................................................................................................................. 6 2.3.4 Mains electricity Heat Pumps....................................................................................................... 7 2.3.5 Solar ................................................................................................................................................ 7 PIPING ........................................................................................................................................................ 7 2.4 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ....................................................................................................................... 7 2.5 OUTLET DEVICES / TERMINAL UNITS ..................................................................................................... 8

SHW DESCRIPTIONS FOR ALTERNATIVE BUILDING FORMS AND BUILDING CLASS ....... 9 3.1 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.5 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.6 3.6.1 3.7 3.7.1 3.7.2 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 9 BCA CLASS 2 - APARTMENTS ............................................................................................................... 9 Form A and Form B......................................................................................................................... 9 Form E............................................................................................................................................. 9 BCA CLASS 3 - HOTELS ........................................................................................................................ 9 Form A............................................................................................................................................. 9 Form D ............................................................................................................................................ 9 Form E............................................................................................................................................. 9 BCA CLASS 5 - OFFICES ..................................................................................................................... 10 Form A, Form B and Form D........................................................................................................ 10 Form E........................................................................................................................................... 10 BCA CLASS 6 RETAIL CENTRES / SALES OUTLETS .......................................................................... 10 Form B and Form C ...................................................................................................................... 10 Form D .......................................................................................................................................... 10 BCA CLASS 8 - LABORATORIES .......................................................................................................... 10 Form C and Form D...................................................................................................................... 10 BCA CLASS 9 HEALTH CARE AND EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS ......................................................... 10 Form B and Form C ...................................................................................................................... 10 Form D .......................................................................................................................................... 10

DESIGN OPTIONS FOR SIZING SERVICES HOT WATER ............................................................ 11 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.4 4.5 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3 4.6 4.7 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 11 BUILDING FUNCTION........................................................................................................................... 11 HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT.............................................................................................................. 12 Instantaneous systems selection considerations ............................................................................ 12 Storage systems selection considerations ...................................................................................... 13 Storage systems configuration....................................................................................................... 14 Storage systems scheduling ........................................................................................................... 14 HEATING ENERGY SOURCE ................................................................................................................. 15 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................................... 15 Piping ............................................................................................................................................ 15 Pipe insulation............................................................................................................................... 16 Pumps ............................................................................................................................................ 19 OUTLET DEVICES / TERMINAL UNITS ................................................................................................... 21 WARM WATER SYSTEMS .................................................................................................................... 22
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SERVICES HOT WATER USAGE PROFILES .................................................................................... 23 5.1 5.2 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 23 PREDICTED SHW USAGE PROFILES ..................................................................................................... 23

SHW ENERGY SAVING OPTIONS AND ENERGY CONSUMPTION GUIDELINES .................. 24 6.1 ENERGY SAVING OPTIONS .................................................................................................................. 24 6.1.1 Heat Transfer Equipment .............................................................................................................. 24 6.1.2 Heating Energy Source.................................................................................................................. 25 6.1.3 Distribution Systems ...................................................................................................................... 25 6.1.4 Outlet devices / Terminal units ...................................................................................................... 26 6.2 ENERGY CONSUMPTION GUIDELINES .................................................................................................. 26

7 8

AVERAGE SEASONAL COLD WATER SUPPLY TEMPERATURES ............................................ 30 RECOMMENDED BCA AND AUSTRALIAN STANDARD AMENDMENTS ................................. 32

APPENDIX A BUILDING FORMS ................................................................................................................ 35 APPENDIX B STANDARD SHW SYSTEM DEFINITIONS AND FEATURES ....................................... 37 APPENDIX C APPLICATION SIZING GUIDES......................................................................................... 40 APPENDIX D SERVICES HOT WATER SIZING GUIDE......................................................................... 42 APPENDIX E USAGE PROFILES ................................................................................................................. 43 APPENDIX F REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 50

This report is based specifically on confidential briefing information provided by the Client and is not intended for use by unauthorised persons or parties. No warranties are made to any unauthorised persons or parties in respect of the contents of this report. SEMF Holdings Pty. Ltd 45 Murray Street Hobart TAS 7000 A.C.N. 009 543 702 Telephone (03) 62311211 Facsimile (03) 62348709

Email semf@semf.com.au

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report describes the outcomes of an investigation of Services Hot Water (SHW) efficiency measures suitable for inclusion in the BCA proposed energy provisions for commercial buildings, Class 2 to Class 9B. The report outlines typical SHW systems for a range of different building forms and classification types and the various features associated with these systems. Typical usage profiles, energy consumption guidelines and SHW sizing concepts are detailed. A range of potential energy saving measures is identified for the various components in SHW systems. Whilst no specific recommendations are required in relation to this report, we would recommend that a MEPS program and performance criteria for boiling water units (BWU) be implemented as it was identified during our investigation that no regulatory controls for BWUs currently exist and these units use a considerable amount of energy. Simplified guides to assist in the design of SHW systems and in the calculation of SHW energy consumption are also provided within this report. A range of potential minimum requirements for implementation into the BCA are identified, including the possible development of an Australian standard for boiling water systems and a package of best practice design notes.

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1.1

INTRODUCTION
Background

The Australian Building Codes Board (ABCB), in cooperation with the Australian Greenhouse Office (AGO), is developing energy efficiency measures suitable for inclusion in the Building Code of Australia (BCA). A number of technical working groups have been established to assist the ABCB in developing suitable cost effective technical energy efficiency measures for inclusion in the BCA. Commercial Working Group Number 4 (WGC4) is specifically looking at the HVAC and Service Hot Water (SHW) services. As a preliminary to WGC4s consideration of SHW energy measures, identification of the standard design concepts for SHW systems was required. Hence, the ABCB Office sought expert advice on SHW systems that met the objectives described below.

1.2

Objectives

The specific objectives of the SHW review are as follows: 1. To identify typical SHW for a range of representative buildings and variations for the various classes of building; 2. To provide specific descriptive advice on these systems including control features, maximum pipe work lengths, recirculating pumps, scheduling of multiple heating units and heating unit configurations; 3. Identify how SHW systems are sized; 4. Identify energy saving features in SHW systems, indicative costs and energy efficiency savings that such features could realise; 5. To provide recommendations on how to estimate energy consumption, including unit standing losses, piping losses and water heating based upon average supply water temperatures and activity profiles; 6. To identify average seasonal supply water temperatures for state and territory capital cities and Cairns, Coffs Harbour, Geraldton, Alice Springs and Kalgoorlie; and 7. Provide standard usage profiles for each of the building forms and classes.

1.3

Exclusions

This review is intended to only investigate SHW systems for provision of potable water to tenants and occupants within buildings. It is not intended to be a review of Swimming pools, Spas or the provision of hydronic space heating systems. The specific sizing of SHW systems is not included within this commission, however general design and sizing guidelines are outlined within this report. Details on Services Hot Water for process applications is also excluded.

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2.1

SERVICES HOT WATER


Introduction

For the purposes of this report we have defined Services Hot Water systems only in the context of the delivery of potable water to occupants. SHW system design is controlled by a number of regulatory systems including AS3500.1.2:1998 Water supply - Acceptable solutions, AS3500.4.2:1997 Hot water supply Acceptable Solutions, NSW Hosplan Code of Practice on thermostatic mixing valves (TMVs) and various local authority requirements in each State and Territory. SHW systems may consist of distributed instantaneous heating and storage water systems and local boiling water units. SHW systems consist of four primary components, viz., the heat transfer equipment, the heating energy source, the piping distribution system, and the outlet devices or terminal units.

2.2

Heat Transfer Equipment

Two primary forms of heat exchange units are used in Services Hot Water systems to raise the cold-water make-up water to the required supply water temperature. The primary heat transfer systems typically consist of storage water units with some form of immersion heater or heat exchange mechanism. The second form of heat transfer consists of instantaneous heating, which adds heat directly to the distributed water. Note that some of the newer SHW systems on the market consist of a combination storage and instantaneous heating. For commercial buildings, heating is primarily provided by either gas or electricity although heat reclaim and solar collectors are also used. Gas heaters are capable of being labelled in Australia, with an energy star-rating scheme, similar to that utilised for electrical equipment. Gas equipment is rated under an Australian Gas Association scheme (AGA), using their Method of Test for Energy Labelling of Space Heaters AG103 MOT 5.18.1 1998. Details on the energy rating of gas-fuelled systems can be reviewed on the web site www.gas.asn.au Electric Storage heaters are labelled under a similar Minimum Energy Performance Scheme (MEPS). Electric Storage water heaters are labelled using AS1056.1 1991 under the energy rating scheme managed by the Australian Greenhouse Office. Details on the energy rating of electric storage hot water cylinders can be reviewed on the web site www.energyrating.gov.au. Under this scheme electric storage heaters must meet the minimum efficiency requirements of the standard to be allowed to be sold within Australia. The efficiency requirements are based on standing heat losses of the storage vessels. A star rating system, similar to that used for gas water heaters to compare the relative efficiency of models, has not been setup for electric hot water heaters. It is evident that there are some shortfalls in current regulatory requirements in terms of heat transfer equipment. Whilst the design and efficiency requirements of storage hot water systems are stipulated by Australian Standards, there are no similar regulations for the efficiency or construction of Boiling Water Units. Given the number of BWUs installed in commercial buildings, we believe that a MEPS rating scheme needs to be instigated. Note in some instances it may be a requirement to consider duty and standby systems, particularly in centralised designs to ensure that the end users are not disadvantaged should the centralised option generate a fault.

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2.3

Heating Energy Source

A number of alternative energy sources exist for SHW systems. These may be electrical (either direct electric or heat pump), solar (either Photovoltaic or solar collector), fuel (typically LPG or Natural Gas) or recovered waste heat (i.e. flue gases, refrigeration cycles, process water, etc.) Heating energy sources can be categorised into the following types. 2.3.1 Low cost waste heat

A source of waste heat may already exist as part of the buildings process systems. This may be fluids which have been utilised as cooling agents for process systems. Examples include heat rejected from refrigeration for cool rooms and freezer plant and heat from wastewater. Alternatively a cogeneration plant, which typically consists of a fuel driven engine generating electricity for a building, can provide waste heat from the engines exhaust and cooling jacket by passing the waste heat through heat exchangers for distribution to the domestic hot water. The heat exchangers need to be constructed to meet the requirements for potable water. These are commonly engineered on a project-by-project basis, however the ROTEX system distributed by Origin Energy is a standardised mass produced heat exchanger specifically designed for this application. 2.3.2 Non renewable direct fuels

Natural Gas and LPG are the two most common fuels for use with SHW systems. Natural gas has a number of advantages over LPG in that it generates fewer greenhouse gases than LPG and is also significantly cheaper as a fuel source. Gas fired SHW systems can operate across a broad range of efficiencies, with ASHRAE 90.1-1999 specifying minimum efficiencies of 62% for heating units below 58kW and ranging between 75% and 80% for larger units. When considering gas heated units exact details need to be sought from the manufactures heating transfer equipment data sheets.

2.3.3

Mains electricity

Standard mains electricity systems are available in two options: Standard tariff electricity Standard tariff electricity is the most common SHW heating energy source. Electricity has a number of disadvantages in that it generates the highest greenhouse gases of all fuel sources (with the exception of green power schemes) and is the most expensive fuel type with the exception of LPG. The advantages of electricity are that it is the only convenient fuel source for boiling water units and that standard hot water cylinders are at their most economical capital cost when operating on mains electricity. In addition it is a very easy energy source to supply to SHW heating systems. Off peak electricity Off peak electricity offers an advantage over standard tariffs in that electricity is provided at a cheaper tariff than at the standard tariff. However, off peak electricity is only available at specific times for limited periods. To use an off peak tariff SHW systems require correctly sized storage tanks that can accommodate the standing losses and the SHW draw-off during the day.

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It should be noted that greenhouse gas emissions are significant if a non-renewable electricity source is used. 2.3.4 Mains electricity Heat Pumps

Standard mains electricity is utilised in heat pump water heaters that use a standard vapour compression refrigeration cycle to extract heat from ambient air and reject heat into the stored water to heat the water to the required temperature. By drawing the heat from the atmosphere, heat pumps have efficiency in the region of 300% over standard electrical storage water systems and offer significant energy saving benefits. Heat pumps operate on a similar principle to refrigerators where heat is transferred from one place to another. This is achieved by cold liquid refrigerant collecting heat from ambient air and changing from a liquid to a gaseous state, the compressor compressing the refrigerant gas to a high pressure, thus raising its temperature, and subsequently rejecting heat from the high pressure, high temperature gas to the water storage tank. This heat transfer liquefies the refrigerant in the process. There are two main types of heat pump systems. The first works as a standard air source unit, which is integral to the storage tank, with a fan to force air over an evaporator to soak up the ambient heat and a coil in the storage tank through which heat is rejected to the water. The second type is a solar boosted heat pump, in which the air warmed evaporator is replaced by a solar panel exposed to solar radiation. In this unit the refrigerant is piped through the panel and is heated up by both solar radiation and ambient air. The heat rejected from the refrigeration cycle is again discharged via a coil in the storage tank to the water. Domestic style heat pump systems have very few limitations, with heat pumps being suitable for operation in most weather conditions. Some systems are claimed to operate correctly at temperatures below 0oC. The common style of heat pump is capable of maintaining a water temperature of approximately a maximum of 60oC without any boost heating system. However in SHW systems for kitchen applications, require water at approximately 80oC, an in-line booster is necessary. Heat pump systems are generally only available up to approximately 350L capacity. 2.3.5 Solar

This is the most greenhouse gas friendly energy source. Some form of booster is still required, particularly in colder climates, to assist in times of low solar availability. Booster systems are typically electricity, gas or LPG. Two primary forms of solar-fuelled hot water cylinders are available from the standard solar collector, which circulates the water through a solar collector panel and thereby picks up heat from the available solar gains, to photovoltaic technology. The PV cell option is the more expensive of the two.

2.4

Piping Distribution Systems

This is the piping network which allows the hot water to be distributed to any required location in a building. It may include circulation pumps. A cold-water make-up is provided to replenish water drawn from the SHW system In Australia, the distribution piping is commonly constructed from copper piping and copper based fittings. However, the prevalence of blue water problems in copper piping systems is resulting in the use of cross linked polyethylene or similar approved plastic pipe as an alternative piping material. Consideration of local environmental conditions, in terms of the water quality, should be considered in respect of determining pipe materials.

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2.5

Outlet devices / Terminal units

These are the plumbing fixtures through which hot water is delivered to the user. They may include mixing devices to control water delivery temperatures or deliver water at the same temperature as the distributed water system. As Legionella can occur in water systems, outlet devices need to be selected to minimise potential health problems if the water temperature is dropped below 50oC. This applies specifically to thermostatic mixing valves and the like. A significant array of outlet devices exist, the evaluation of which is beyond the scope of this review, however details of typical outlets, that are used in the majority of installations, and their flow rates are identified in Appendix D. Where specialist equipment is connected to the SHW system, designers can obtain flow rates, temperature ranges and any other relevant design details from the manufacturers literature. The usage patterns of outlets vary significantly depending upon the buildings usage profile and its functional requirements.

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3.1

SHW DESCRIPTIONS FOR ALTERNATIVE BUILDING FORMS AND BUILDING CLASS


Introduction

As part of the ABCB proposed implementation of energy efficiency measures in the BCA, a set of representative building forms has been developed to standardise the energy efficiency requirements between all of the various investigative and technical committees. A total of five standard building forms have been developed described as Forms A, B, C, D and E. Each building form could potentially be utilised as a different Class of building as defined by the BCA one of Class 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9. Definitions for the various building forms and building class can be found in Appendix A. Appendix B provides, in the form of a table, the definition of the standard SHW systems, which would be provided for the various building forms and classes. Definitions for the SHW systems, which would typically be provided for the various building forms and building Class, are described in the following sections.

3.2
3.2.1

BCA Class 2 - Apartments


Form A and Form B

It is recommended that a localised SHW system be provided for each apartment. Systems can be either storage or instantaneous. An alternative is a centralised storage SHW system supplying hot water to several floors. The SHW water flow to each apartment can be measured to allocate energy costs. 3.2.2 Form E Systems can be either storage or

Localised SHW systems for each apartment. instantaneous.

3.3
3.3.1

BCA Class 3 - Hotels


Form A

A central storage SHW supplying SHW to several floors is recommended. A single recirculating system would usually be provided to supply a number of floors, typically 3 to 4 floors for a Form A building and all three floors of the Form B building. 3.3.2 Form D

A central storage SHW supplying all SHW points on the floor is recommended. The recirculating system would be designed and installed to accommodate the SHW needs of the whole building. 3.3.3 Form E Systems can be either storage or

Localised SHW systems for each apartment. instantaneous.

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3.4
3.4.1

BCA Class 5 - Offices


Form A, Form B and Form D

Depending on the size of the tenancy, a localised storage system is recommended for each office. In the case of small tenancies it may be appropriate to install a centralised system that supplies SHW to each tenancy. The common amenities areas would be supplied from a centralised SHW system. 3.4.2 Form E

Due to small size of the building it is recommended that localised storage SHW systems be provided for each office. The SHW systems for the office areas may also supply the building amenities area.

3.5
3.5.1

BCA Class 6 Retail Centres / Sales Outlets


Form B and Form C

Localised storage or instantaneous systems for each tenancy. The common amenities areas will be supplied with a centralised recirculating SHW system. 3.5.2 Form D

Localised storage or instantaneous systems for the tenancy. The amenities areas could be provided from the tenancy systems or by a separate localised storage or instantaneous system.

3.6
3.6.1

BCA Class 8 - Laboratories


Form C and Form D

Instantaneous systems are recommended as most laboratory environments typically use large volumes of cold water and low volumes of hot water on a variable as required basis. Amenities areas could be supplied from the laboratory SHW system or from a localised storage or instantaneous system.

3.7
3.7.1

BCA Class 9 Health Care and Educational Buildings


Form B and Form C

Typically, the common amenities areas would be supplied from a centralised recirculating SHW system. Localised storage systems or instantaneous systems would be provided for special purpose spaces or isolated areas. 3.7.2 Form D

A reticulated central storage SHW throughout the floor is recommended. The amenities areas would be supplied from this system.

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4.1

DESIGN OPTIONS FOR SIZING SERVICES HOT WATER


Introduction

A wide range of technical literature is available for the design and sizing of SHW systems. The technical resources which were reviewed as part of this investigation, and upon which the following design information is based, included: ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-1989 Users Manual, November 1992 ASHRAE; 1999 ASHRAE Applications Handbook SI 1999 ASHRAE; RHEEM Hot Water Manual 2000 Rheem Australia; DUX Hot Water Catalogue 1999 Dux Australia; AIRAH Handbook Millennium 3rd edition, January 2000 AIRAH; and Rinnai Hot Water Manual 2000 edition, Rinnai Australia.

In addition to these design guides the designer must incorporate, when required by approval authorities, the relevant sections of AS/NZS 3500 National Plumbing and Drainage Code. In designing the SHW system the design process needs to be broken up into the various key components of SHW systems as defined in Section 2. The designing of SHW systems incorporates the following steps: 1. Building function and size to determine usage patterns; 2. Identification of all areas in which hot water will be utilised, including type and form of outlet devices and water flow rates; 3. Identify peak demand periods; 4. Identify supply water temperature requirements; 5. Determine most suitable energy option, including a life cycle review of alternatives; 6. Select appropriate heat transfer equipment option; 7. Identify available storage spaces for location of heat transfer equipment; and 8. Design of distribution system, including pipe sizing, insulation and pumping requirements. 9. Selection of outlets including flow restriction devices if appropriate

4.2

Building Function

The BCA provides within Part F2 of Volume 1 a calculation for the number of occupants and minimum required fixtures for buildings. Note that the requirements of the BCA in this area are prescriptive requirements and where the number of occupants is known, this value may take precedence over the BCA Table D1.13. A determination of the function of the space, in relation to the BCA building classification, allows the designer to allocate peak flow rates and hot water usage patterns in the selection of the most appropriate SHW system.
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Appendices C and D provide recommendations for typical hot water usage patterns for various building classifications, including design flows and peak usage periods.

4.3

Heat Transfer Equipment

The most popular choices for provision of hot water to a variety of applications are either by storage units or instantaneous units. Both systems can be installed as either a single unit or in a multiple configuration dependent upon user requirements. Both of the systems described are suitable for single domestic type applications or by extending to multiple manifolded units are suitable for larger applications. The storage design option relies on an energy source to heat water within a storage vessel sized to provide sufficient hot water for a pre-determined level of use. The level of use is calculated from expected usage rates of hot water for a fixture (i.e. basin, shower etc). The usage rates for all of the fixtures on the SHW system are summed and then allowance made for diversity of use to give the maximum hot water volume to be held in storage. The storage vessel is fitted with heating elements that have the capacity to heat the stored water, some of which has been drawn off by the various fixtures, within a particular time period (recover the heated level of the stored water at pre-determined rate). For particular size storage units the recovery rate is governed by the size and number of heating elements, if electricity is the heating element, or the capacity of an attached gas fired instantaneous heating device, if gas is the chosen heating medium. Storage units are manufactured in a large variety of sizes and capacities and are usually housed in metal cabinets, which are either cylindrical or rectangular in external shape. Within NSW the Australian Gas Limited Company (AGL) has a number of requirements for the design of SHW systems involving gas heaters which requires a minimum 80% efficiency. The efficiency is based on the heat losses of the flow and return pipe work and the heat transfer equipment as a combined system. The more recently developed gas instantaneous units are generally small in volume, can be electronically programmed to differing temperatures and deliver limitless (subject to continuity of fuel source) hot water. The selection of solar or heat pump systems should be considered as one of the more energy efficient systems. The Rheem hot water book provides a table of advantages and disadvantages associated with the most common forms of heating water and is a recommended resource for SHW designers. 4.3.1 Instantaneous systems selection considerations

Determine available space and identify any restrictions. Typically, the fuel source is gas but electric systems are also available. Location typically external, if internal then a ventilation system may be required. Internal Flue Cost and practicality of fluing options, less practical generally if not on an external wall, particularly in a multi storey application. Visual Impact A flue grille may not be permitted to exit on a heritage rated building or building element or onto a pedestrian way. The flue grille should be unobtrusive, clear of outside air intakes and windows and comply with the relevant gas code, and vulnerability to vandalism in non secured area can be an issue.

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External Flue Points to note are that the local atmosphere could be corrosive, the visual impact of the flue, what local planning rules require, are there any heritage issues, provision of access to gas source, provision of access for maintenance, and the need for security covers. Control Systems: The instantaneous unit can be remotely controlled by the user or alternatively pre-set to deliver water to fixtures. The units can also be pre-programmed to deliver water at lower temperatures for warm water systems although these must incorporate some facility for regular disinfection of the entire system. Many instantaneous systems are supplied with microprocessor controllers, which can program the scheduling of multiple units. These systems can also be managed by building a building management and controls system (BMCS). Advantages: - Limitless supply of hot water utilising a variety of selection methods for temperature control. Energy savings achieved by not needing to store large volumes of pre heated water for intermittent use. Disadvantages: - External space requirements for gas storage if LPG is the energy source. The units should allow for controlled short-term temperature rises for disinfection or alternatively the delivery system to which they are attached can be fitted with an ultra-violet disinfection lamp.

4.3.2

Storage systems selection considerations

Space the space required for the installation and maintenance. Location external location as opposed to internal, the visual impact, sometimes necessary to locate units at a distance from fixtures due to space limitations. Generally should be located as close as possible to fixtures that require a short / quick supply of hot water. Internal - Space availability, impact on other building elements for replacement, potential for damage to adjacent building elements resulting from failure of the water storage tank(s), disruption to building function for replacement. Seek advice from the water authority on their historical knowledge of tank failures so that the storage tank selected provides a life appropriate to the system. Determine water pH in the area as it can have an adverse effect on storage tank life. External Assess the visual impact, the vulnerability to vandalism in non-secured areas, if corrosive atmosphere is a problem, and if electric, what is the access to the power source. Control Systems: The storage units are typically on-off control from a thermostat mounted within the storage vessel to control stored water temperature. For load scheduling purposes it may be possible to accept lower hot water temperatures when heating elements are initiated by a BMCS to limit maximum demand. Advantages A storage system will provide a reservoir of hot water for a limited time in the event of an energy failure. They provide simplicity of installation with few moving parts. Disadvantages - A prolonged initial heat up period is required. The storage tanks occupy a large amount of space. If the amount of water storage is limited then the reheat time can be longer. There is potential to cause significant property damage in the event of a failure of the tank.

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4.3.3

Storage systems configuration

Configuration of units is required to address the diversity of applications for hot water unit installation. Items for consideration are: Type and style of facility; Known ambient water temperature; Required temperature rise; Known capacity of selected unit(s) to meet criteria; If a storage system with remote heating, location of the storage unit; and Cross reference to unit type selection.

The various areas within a facility may have varying hot water temperature requirements, ranging from 82oC in a restaurant kitchen to approximately 42oC in nursing homes. Consideration should be given to selection of separate heating water systems for specific areas, such as kitchens, to avoid heating water to the maximum temperature and then cooling down again to supply the remaining areas that typically may only require 60oC water. Storage system configurations may vary from individual systems located adjacent to the outlets to large central systems located in a common area with a flow and return distribution network. Each system has its own advantages and disadvantages. Where the hot water storage system is remote from the heating source, eg., heat reclaim, wood fired, or some solar collector systems, the storage tank should be insulated to so that it provides a heat loss no greater than that of an integral heat source/water storage unit.

4.3.4

Storage systems scheduling

The units, regardless of type and style, can be installed in multiples to address the specific needs of the facility being served. Storage units can be installed in parallel with the hot water supply being drawn equally from all storage units to meet demand or alternatively through the installation of electronically controlled valving and switching can be drawn on a unit-byunit basis. A criterion for this component of design is identified as follows: Type and style of facility; Known ambient water temperature; Known rate of use, in litres per second, to meet the demand of fixtures; and Minimum level of either storage or achievable delivery rates.

Where there are a number of storage units are installed to meet the SHW demands the system should be provided with an expansion system such that water is not lost from the system. This expansion system needs to comply with the requirements of providing potable water.

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4.4

Heating Energy Source

The selection of the heating energy source is dependent upon a number of factors including available equipment types that can meet the functional requirements of the SHW system, and their proposed location. The unit cost of energy, and its impact on the life cycle costing, generally determines the energy source and the heating system efficiency. A life cycle analysis is recommended, as the more economical energy sources are often associated with the highest capital-intensive heating transfer equipment. Consideration of the greenhouse gas generating levels of energy sources is becoming a critical issue with preference being towards energy sources that have very low emission levels. The following points need to be considered in the selection of SHW systems: Cost of energy source. User preferences. Availability of the energy source, i.e., whether gas main piping is available nearby for connection, the availability of mains electricity, the extent of any solar contribution, if the electrical infrastructure is adequate. Limitations in the electrical infrastructure could mean that gas or some other form of energy source are the only available options unless significant expenditure is made to upgrade the electrical supplies. With electrical systems there are a number of different tariff systems which can have an impact upon the selection of the heat transfer equipment. The main tariffs available include: Continuous, 24 hour supply; Off peak, where energy is only available at specific times; and Maximum demand which applies a charge for each kW of energy usage at a particular instance in time, but offers a cheaper unit electricity rate.

4.5

Distribution Systems

The distribution system comprises the water piping, the piping insulation and, if necessary, circulating pumps.

4.5.1

Piping

The determination of pipe systems and piping working lengths is governed by the following: Code stipulations for maximum allowable linear run of smaller diameter pipe, i.e. AS/NZS3500.5: 2002 Domestic Installations; Head loss; Friction loss; Demand of the fixtures and fittings to be connected to the subject pipe in terms of flow rates; Piping materials; and
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Allowable temperature losses from the heat transfer equipment to the outlet device. A number of pipe sizing guidebooks are available to enable sizing of the piping distribution system to meet the peak demand at an acceptable pressure loss. Whilst it is difficult to provide guidelines for what is an acceptable pressure loss, the pressure losses should be minimised to ensure that minimum pressure levels are achieved at the outlet. Guidebooks include the AIRAH handbook, Application Manual DA19 and ASHRAE 1997 Fundamentals. The designer should review the local water quality to determine if piping materials other than copper need to be considered. In large systems balancing of the piping network will need to be undertaken to ensure suitable water delivery occurs when multiple outlets are drawing water. This is particularly important where multiple risers / droppers exist or multiple horizontal circulating loops exist. Check valves should be installed in the return lines. Backflow prevention devices may need to be considered in specific instances. Reference to the relevant Australian Standard AS/NZS3500.1.2 A common rule of thumb criterion, to assist in the sizing of hot water piping networks, is that hot water needs to be available at any terminal device, eg. a tap, within 30 seconds of the terminal device being opened. A rule of thumb design for a typical flow velocity is around 1.8m/s. Pipe insulation The insulation of heating water pipe work is critical in SHW systems to overcome the potentially high level of heat loss that radiates from uninsulated pipe work. Insulation of pipe work has been proposed for regulation within Volume 2 of the BCA, through a recommended amendment to AS/NZS3500.4.2 and similar provisions are recommended for Volume 1. In NSW the AGL requires that all hot water piping be insulated with minimum 25mm thick insulation. The BCA requires that any insulation product not add to the fire potential of a building and therefore must have a zero flammability index. The minimum piping insulation requirements proposed in Energy Efficiency Measures BCA Volume 2 (Housing Provisions), Amendment No. 12 Prepublication Draft, November 2002.for SHW reticulation pipe work in domestic applications is climate zone based. This could also be utilised as the basis of SHW systems for Commercial building. The proposed measures are shown in the following table.

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TABLE 4.5.2-1 Proposed BCA Housing Provisions for Insulation of SHW Piping

Minimum Thermal Insulation System Location of Piping to be insulated


Minimum Total R- Values
Climate Zone A Climate Zone B Climate Zone C

Internal piping

All hot water piping encased within a concrete floor slab All flow and return piping that is: within an unventilated wall space, or within an internal floor between storeys, or between ceiling insulation and a ceiling

0.2 0.2

0.2 0.2

0.2 0.2

Piping located within a ventilated wall space, an enclosed building sub-floor or a roof space Piping located outside the building or in an enclosed building sub-floor or a roof space

All flow and return piping Cold water supply piping within 500mm of connection to the central water heating system Relief valve piping within 500mm of the connection to the central heating water system All flow and return piping Cold water supply piping within 500mm of connection to the central water heating system Relief valve piping within 500mm of the connection to the central heating water system

0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3

0.45 0.45 0.45 0.6 0.6 0.6

0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6

Notes:
1. 2. Piping within a timber member, such as passing through a wall stud, is considered to have sufficient insulation for the purposes of the above table. Acceptable pipe insulation material, include but is not restricted to: a. 9mm of closed cell polymer, R = 0.2 b. 13mm of closed cell polymer, R = 0.3 c. 19mm of closed cell polymer, R = 0.45 d. 25mm of closed cell polymer, R = 0.6 Climate Zones A, B and C include the following Capital Cities and reference towns: a. Zone A Coffs Harbour, Sydney, Alice Springs, Darwin, Brisbane, Cairns, Perth, Geraldton and Adelaide; b. Zone B , Melbourne, Canberra, Hobart and Kalgoorlie and c. Zone C Alpine Areas

3.

ASHRAE 90.1-1989 stipulates the minimum pipe insulation thickness requirements shown in the following table.

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TABLE 4.5.2-2 ASHRAE 90.1 1989 Insulation Thicknesses for SHW Piping

Temperature
Dead legs up to 50mm dia1

Nominal Pipe diameter


25mm and less 32mm to 50mm 65mm to 100mm 125mm above and

>40oC Notes:

12.5 mm

25.0 mm

25.0 mm

38.0 mm

38.0 mm

1. Dead legs to individual terminal outlets of a maximum length of 3660mm 2. The above requirements relate to recirculating sections of SHW systems and the first 2.5m from storage vessels of non-recirculating systems.

We note that the ASHRAE requirements are in many instances more stringent than the proposed ABCB recommendations within Volume 2 of the BCA. For commercial applications the ASHRAE recommendations would appear to be more suitable, but consideration of environmental effects as proposed for AS/NZS3500 should be included. A combination of the more stringent recommendations in each document would result in the following tabulated proposal for SHW insulation thicknesses. TABLE 4.5.2-3 Climate Zone
Any size encased in concrete floor Dead legs up to 50mm dia1

Nominal Pipe diameter


25mm and less 32mm to 50mm 65mm to 100mm 125mm and above

A B C

12.5 mm 12.5 mm 12.5 mm

12.5 mm 12.5 mm 12.5 mm

25.0 mm 25.0 mm 25.0 mm

25.0 mm 25.0 mm 25.0 mm

38.0 mm 38.0 mm 38.0 mm

38.0 mm 38.0 mm 38.0 mm

The calculation of minimum insulation for pipe work is provided within ACI Insulation data sheets, and the formula to calculate this value is as follows: r2loge(r2/r1) = k(td-top) / (fo(ta-td) Where: r2 = pipe thickness + insulation thickness r1 = pipe thickness k = thermal conductivity of insulation W/mK td = dew point temperature top = operating temperature of equipment fo = surface coefficient of air film ta = surrounding ambient temperature Whilst the above equation provides the calculated minimum insulation thickness it is recommended that a 12mm thick safety margin be added to the calculated thickness.

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4.5.3

Pumps

Pumps are installed in SHW piping systems to ensure that hot water will be available at a terminal point at a adequate flow rate and pressure and within a reasonable period of time. When selecting pumps the designer needs to consider whether primary or secondary pumping is appropriate for the piping system. Primary Pumping: Primary pumping is generally used to supplement the delivery of cold make-up water to the heating units (storage or instantaneous) where the cold water supply is inadequate. The need for primary pumping should be assessed on available delivery pressure, expected head and friction losses within the internal components of the system and the known demand of the fixtures to be served. Secondary Pumping: In secondary pumping the secondary (or circulating) pump is located beyond the heating units and circulates water in a delivery loop back into the heating or storage tank. If the pump is adequately sized this ensures that the hot water in the loop is such that, when a terminal unit is opened, there is only a short delay before hot water is available at the terminal unit. In hot water systems where the supply temperature is above 60oC circulation of hot water in the loop contains the growth of Legionella. At 60oC Legionella is killed over a 10-hour period. (Higher temperatures speed up the rate of kill but a higher SHW temperature is not necessary for by maintaining a temperature at all times above this minimum temperature of 60oC Legionella will not grow) Individual fixtures or thermostatic mixing valves can be connected off the loop and thus are served with a continuously upgraded supply of hot water. Generally a circulating pump is selected based on the following criteria: Static pressure available at the cold water main connection; Length of service loop pipe; Friction loss in the loop piping; Pump head loss through the system; Demand of the fixtures attached to the system in terms of minimum working pressures and flow rates; and Appropriate corrosion resistant materials.

Secondary Pump Sizing: Typically, the secondary pump is sized as follows: Determine an allowable temperature loss from the heat transfer equipment and the return water manifold. Typically a temperature drop of between 5oC and 10oC (t) is selected. This temperature differential is determined from the minimum storage water temperature of typically 60oC and the lowest recommended supply temperature of 50oC to avoid potential Legionella problems. The higher the temperature differential the lower the flow rate that is required and hence lower pumping energy use and heat loss from the distribution system. Consideration needs to be given to lengths of dead legs as this may require a lower temperature differential in the flow/return line to

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ensure that water in dead legs is at a reasonable temperature to avoid potential Legionella problems. Calculation of heat loss in watts per hour from the flow and return pipe work (watts). The above is used to determine the minimum return water flow rate as follows: Flow rate, L/s = Heat loss (W) / (4.186 x 1000 x t) From the return water flow rate, and knowing the total system resistance head, a suitable circulation pump can be selected from a manufacturers pump data literature. The recommended minimum flow rate is 0.05 l/sec (3.0 l/min.) and the maximum recommended flow rate in pipe work is 3.0 l/sec (180 l/min). These flow rates may be adjusted if instantaneous heater or storage water devices are used.

The level of sophistication of the system is determined by assessing the number of outlets to be served and the conditions in which the system is to be installed. The system should be designed to achieve the best levels of efficiency in terms of water delivery and energy consumption. Circulating pumps should be provided with time clock control in instances where usage is not continuous, i.e. offices. To improve energy efficiency, pumps should be controlled by the following mechanisms, particularly in larger installations: Control via a thermostat in the return water line to operate the pump over an acceptable temperature range; and Consideration could be given to installation of a pressure sensor in the piping network for control of pump speed via a VSD on the pump. This will provide energy savings where variable loads occur. The following tables outline heat loss rates for bare and insulated piping systems. These tables can be used to estimate the heat loss from the piping and hence allow the pump circulation flow rate to be determined. Table 4.5.3-1 - Heat emission from bare copper pipes W/m run of horizontal pipe (in still air at 20oC)
Nominal pipe diameter, mm Uninsulated pipe per oC Uninsulated pipe per 40oC temp difference (i.e. at 60oC delivery)

15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100

0.67 0.97 1.26 1.53 1.8 2.33 2.84 3.34 4.34

27 39 50 61 72 93 114 134 174

Source: AIRAH DA16 Application Manual Table 5-30E and ASHRAE 1999 Applications Handbook Section 48, Table 2

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Note:
1. 2. 3. ASHRAE recommend for rule of thumb instances to utilise an average value of 60W/m for uninsulated pipe. Values approximately double when bare pipe work is exposed in a 2 m/s wind. Vertical pipe work emits heat at approximately a 10% higher rate.

Table 4.5.3-2 - Heat emission from insulated copper pipes W/m run of horizontal pipe (in still air at 20oC)
Nominal pipe diameter, mm Insulated pipe per 40oC temp difference (i.e. at 60oC delivery) R = 0.3 Insulated pipe per 40oC temp difference (i.e. at 60oC delivery) R = 0.6 Insulated pipe per 40oC temp difference (i.e. at 60oC delivery) R = 1.0

15 20 25 32 40 50 65

13.6 15.2 18.0 20.8 22.8 26.0 30.8

7.6 9.2 10 11.6 12.8 14.8 17.6

6.4 7.2 8.4 9.6 10.4 11.6 14.0

Source: Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide 1988, UK Institute of Plumbing. Note:
1. 2. ASHRAE recommend for rule of thumb instances to utilise an average value of 30W/m for insulated pipe. R ratings are achieved as follows: 2 o a. 0.3 m . C/W is achieved with 13mm closed polymer insulation 2 o b. 0.6 m . C/W is achieved with 25mm closed polymer insulation c. 1.0 m2.oC/W is achieved with 38mm fibreglass insulation

4.6

Outlet devices / terminal units

The selection of the outlet devices is usually beyond the control of the designer of the SHW system as the architect or end user stipulates them. However the SHW designer can have an input into energy saving features such as follows: Consider installation of flow control devices in the distribution system to minimise water flow rates at outlets to minimum requirements; Discuss with the architectural team and end user in the design stages the benefits of alternative equipment selections with more efficient energy ratings; Generally, when specifying outlet devices consider low flow AAA rated devices; Select devices with low energy consumption rates; and Correctly size and locate Thermostatic Mixing Valves (TMVs) where supply water temperature from the hot water system must be at 60oC and delivered at outlets at approximately 42oC.

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4.7

Warm Water Systems

In instances where water can be supplied throughout a complex at say 45oC or lower warm water systems can be utilised which are essentially the same as typical SHW systems with the exception of the supply water temperature. The major advantage of these systems is the energy savings that are achieved by avoiding any requirement to heat water to the recommended 60oC and then cool it back down again at the outlet. It should be noted that in aged care and disabled facilities warm water temperature systems are stipulated. The disadvantages are that Legionella flourishes in the temperatures at which warm water systems operate and specialised disinfection systems are necessary. Systems such as UV disinfection systems create additional maintenance issues and if not properly maintained will create a Legionella risk. UV systems also require specific flow rates, which will affect the selection of pumps. In addition warm water systems are required registration items by state governments, which adds an additional ongoing expense to the end user and needs to be considered in any life cycle analysis.

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5
5.1

SERVICES HOT WATER USAGE PROFILES


Introduction

The use of SHW in a particular building varies from season to season and day to day. In Australia there are no public records of SHW water use and hence energy use. Consequently it is difficult to estimate how the energy use of a SHW system varies with time. In order to enable comparisons to be made of different systems, SHW use profiles are proposed for the different BCA building classes. The respective profiles are based on maximum hot water usage rates for the building class. The maximum rate would be determined for the number of terminal units.

5.2

Predicted SHW usage profiles

There is insufficient data available to enable seasonal and weekly profiles to be developed so only daily profiles for weekday and weekend use in each of the building classes were estimated. It is proposed that these profiles then be applied to the SHW system throughout the year. They will not provide an accurate estimate of energy use but will enable comparisons to be made between different systems. The predicated usage profiles have been determined for a range of typical building classifications. The profiles are tabulated in Appendix E. The building classifications and types for which the profiles have been developed are: Class 2 Apartments; Class 3 Motels; Class 5 Offices; Class 6 Retail; Class 7 Storage; Class 8 Workshop; and Class 9 Healthcare.

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6
6.1

SHW ENERGY SAVING OPTIONS AND ENERGY CONSUMPTION GUIDELINES


Energy Saving Options

The provision of energy saving options needs to be considered in the context of each of the four key components of SHW systems as defined in Section 2.

6.1.1

Heat Transfer Equipment Services Heating Water should be separate from any central heating water systems for supply of heating water to air conditioning systems or hydronic heating systems. All storage vessels should be appropriately insulated to reduce standing losses. AS1056.1 defines requirements for maximum heat loss levels that are acceptable with all new storage vessels. To save energy from hot water expansion, heat traps or cold-water expansion valves or expansion chambers should be provided. An amendment, Amdt 1, to AS/NZS 3500.4.2 is proposed as part of the energy efficiency measures for the BCA Volume 2 (Housing Provisions), which was issued in March 2002. All hot water piping for domestic hot water systems should be insulated. Instantaneous heating water systems are typically more energy efficient than storage systems. Where practical, instantaneous systems should be utilised in lieu of storage systems. Equipment needs to be correctly sized for the expected loads. Both peak loads and typical daily profiles need to be determined as accurately as possible. Boiling water units are commonly oversized. Experience shows that with the quick recovery time of boiling water units smaller units can be selected. The utilisation of local boiling water units rather than distributed central systems should be investigated, as local BWUs provide a far more efficient form of hot water delivery. Boiling water units and storage water units should be selected for maximum energy efficiency. Timer control of heating systems should be incorporated to minimise standing heat losses. Gas fired heating sources should operate on electronic ignition and consideration should be given to modulation of the gas flow. Limit water temperature to the lowest permissible level. Most SHW systems typically heat water to 60oC or greater and then it is mixed at the outlets for a final delivery temperature of only 30oC to 50oC. Provide stand-alone SHW systems to areas with very high water temperature requirements, i.e. 82oC to kitchens. Locate the heating equipment as close to the terminal units as possible to minimise piping lengths.

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In low use areas, i.e. sports facilities or kitchenettes, provide instantaneous systems to avoid any storage losses and provide on/off control to ensure the system is only available when the space is utilised. Select equipment with high levels of energy efficiency with high star rating that meet the MEPS criteria. Gas equipment is rated under an AGA scheme, which provides star ratings, based upon annual gas consumption levels. A review of the current literature indicates that a minimum star rating of 3.0 stars for storage and gas boosted solar hot water systems and 5.0 stars for instantaneous hot water systems should be considered. Wherever possible look at utilising sources of waste heat as a preheating option for the cold water. Alternatives to the above are to install an energy efficient heat pump or to install solar collectors to pre heat the cold-water inlet to a temperature of approximately 35oC-40oC. A significant number of variations of this concept would have been installed throughout Australia and their effectiveness / efficiency should be reviewed. For a cost saving measure, designs have occasionally been developed which utilise an off-peak heater arrangement to preheat the cold-water inlet, and then three phase heating equipment would meet peak immediate load requirements. Whilst this may have energy cost savings, further investigation would need to be undertaken to determine if it actually reduces energy consumption. An initial assessment would appear to indicate that this is not the case and at best that the concept is energy neutral compared to a standard bank of HWCs. It appears that off-peak preheating and then heating before use systems should not be considered as an energy efficient design option.

6.1.2

Heating Energy Source Consideration should be given to the use of solar hot water systems where appropriate as these systems (if correctly installed, commissioned and maintained) provide the lowest greenhouse gas generation. Generally solar power is both the most economical and results in the lowest greenhouse gas emissions. Gas is considered as the next most greenhouse friendly fuel source and if it is Natural Gas it is relatively economical. Day rate electricity is typically the most expensive energy source and is also the highest in greenhouse emissions (unless generated in Tasmania or by any of the Green Energy Sources now available from many of the power retailers throughout Australia) A review of available fuel types to evaluate greenhouse gas emissions associated with each option should be undertaken as part of the evaluation. If process water or other alternatives of waste heat exist, consider using heat exchanger type systems to take advantage of this free heating energy.

6.1.3
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Distribution Systems Circulating pumps should be controlled to only operate when required. Dead legs in piping systems should be minimised and preferably eliminated totally.
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All hot water lines, including return water lines should be insulated. Minimum thermal insulation levels have been proposed in the recommended Amdt 1 to AS 3500.4.2 Design the piping waste system to run grey waste though a storage vessel / heat exchanger to recover some of the waste heat which is usually never recovered when hot water has been used. Provide pressure reduction devices in the system, to assist in limiting water flow through outlets and to increase equipment life.

6.1.4

Outlet devices / Terminal units Selection of low flow fixtures and fittings is a critical area as any reduction in water usage is a reduction in energy use. In addition reduced pipe sizes, which have reduced energy losses and are more economical to install, may be a secondary benefit. The use of a water flow management system, including flow restrictors and pressure reducing devices valves, is recommended. The purchase of water-using equipment including dishwashers and washing machines needs to be considered on the basis of their water efficiency. A selection based on AAA water consumption and a minimum four star energy rating are recommended. Install outlets with self closing mechanisms.

6.2

Energy Consumption Guidelines

The determination of the energy consumption of SHW systems must include the following components: Storage vessel standing losses. Piping system losses. Delivery temperature, storage temperature and cold water makeup temperature. Hot water demand from all fixtures. Daily hot water usage profile. Fuel source and heating systems efficiency. Heating mechanism, i.e. instantaneous, storage or hybrid. Circulating pump power usage and operating times.

Guidelines to enable estimates of energy consumption of SHW systems are provided below. Storage vessel and boiling water unit standing losses are provided in Tables 6.2-1 and 6.2-2 below. Piping system heat losses are tabulated in Tables 4.5.1-1 and 4.5.1-2

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Delivery temperatures and seasonal cold water temperatures are provided in Appendix D and Section 7. Storage temperatures are typically recommended to be at the minimum end of storage requirements where possible, i.e. 60oC, unless a warm water system is being provided or delivery temperatures need to be higher. The hot water demand for typical fixtures are supplied in Appendix D Typical hot water usage profiles are available from Section 5 and Appendix E Fuel greenhouse gas emissions and efficiency of various heating systems are tabulated in Tables 6.2-3 and 6.2-4. Circulating pump power usage will be available from manufacturers data and the operating times can be based upon usage profiles. Table 6.2-1 - Electric Water Heaters, Maximum Heat Loss 1 Rated Hot Water delivery, (L) 2 3 4 Water heaters with an attached feed tank 2.6 2.8 3.1 3.4 3.7 4.1 4.4 4.8 5.2 Maximum heat loss, kWhr/24h (refer note 1) Water heaters without an attached feed tank Unvented (refer note 2) 25 31.5 40 50 63 80 100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.9 1.47 1.61 1.75 1.96 2.17 2.38 2.66 2.87 3.15 3.43 Vented 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.4 3.8 4.1 4.5 4.9

Source: AS1056.1-1991, amendment 3 1996 Table 2.1 Notes:


1. 2. These values apply to water heaters with a single heating unit and may be increased by 0.2 kWh/24h for each additional heating unit. The values in Column 3 may be used instead of the values in column 2 for un-vented water heaters st without an attached feed tank that are manufactured in Australia before 1 October 1999 or imported before 1st October 1999.
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The values for un-vented water heaters without an attached feed tank may be increased by 0.2 kWh/24h for each temperature sensor or temperature relief valve mounted on a hot-water fitting, but not for any valve on a cold-water fitting.

Table 6.2-2 - Boiling Water Units, Rated Heat Loss Rated Capacity 2L 3L 5L 7.5L 10L 15L 25L 35L 50L 75L 100L Rated cup capacity 10-14 15-18 30-35 45-50 60-75 100-125 150-190 200-280 300-490 450-740 600-980 Element kW 1.5 1.5 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 3.6 2.4 x 2 3.6 x 2 3.6 x 2 3.6 x 2 Heat Loss (kWh/24h) 1.12 1.04 1.50 1.52 2.03 2.23 2.71 4.94 5.71 Note 1 Note 1

Source: ZIP Product Guide, Technical Data dated 19/5/98 Notes:


1. 2. Data was not available at time of printing.
o o Capacity and heat loss based on cold water at 20 C and supply temperature of 100 C.

Table 6.2-3 - Heating Systems efficiency System


Instantaneous gas heaters Electrical Storage water heaters Gas storage water heaters Heat pumps

Efficiency
80% - 85% 95% - 98% 62% - 80% 300% - 450%

Note:
1. System efficiencies are related to the heat transfer equipment and ignore inefficiencies related to heat loss in piping network etc, as losses associated with the distribution network should be calculated separately.

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Table 6.2-4 - Fuel greenhouse gas conversion factors


Fuel Natural Gas Australian Average LPG Heating Oil Fuel Oil Diesel Electricity (1999 values) NSW/ACT Victoria Queensland SA WA Tasmania NT Australian Average Energy Content 39.5 MJ/m3 49.6 GJ/tonne or 25.3 GJ/kL 37.3 GJ/kL 40.8 MJ/L 38.6 GJ/kL 3.6 GJ/Mwhr CO2 emissions (kg CO2/GJ) 59.4 59.4 69.7 73.6 69.7 0.968 0.968 1.467 1.040 1.109 1.032 0.002 0.756 1.051

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AVERAGE SEASONAL COLD WATER SUPPLY TEMPERATURES

AS2984 has identified four climate zones for Australia in which recommended cold water temperatures have been established. Table 7-1 below details cold-water temperatures on a monthly basis for each of the four climate zones.

Table 7-1 - Cold Water Temperatures OC


Month Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4

January February March April May June July August September October November December Average

28 28 27 25 23 20 20 21 24 26 28 28 24.8

29 27 24 20 14 11 9 12 18 23 26 28 20.1

23 23 21 18 15 12 11 12 15 19 21 22 17.7

20 20 18 15 11 9 8 10 12 15 17 19 14.5

Source: AS4234-1994, Solar Water Heaters-Domestic and Heat pump-Calculation of energy consumption Table A5 The State and Territory capital cities and major cities fall into the following Zones: Zone 1: Zone 2: Zone 3: Zone 4: Darwin and Cairns; Alice Springs; Perth, Adelaide, Canberra, Sydney, Brisbane, Geraldton, Kalgoorlie and Coffs Harbour and Melbourne and Hobart

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Rinnai published a range of cold-water temperatures, which differ marginally from those, identified in AS4234-1994 as follows: 1. Darwin - 20oC to 30oC (Zone 1) 2. Cairns - 20oC to 35oC (Zone 1) 3. Alice Springs - 0oC to 30oC (Zone 2) 4. Perth - 18oC to 32oC (Zone 3) 5. Adelaide - 15oC (Zone 3) 6. Canberra - 3oC to 25oC (Zone 3) 7. Sydney - 12oC to 25oC (Zone 3) 8. Brisbane - 20oC to 30oC (Zone 3) 9. Geraldton - 20oC to 35oC (Zone 3) 10. Kalgoorlie - 18oC to 32oC (Zone 3) 11. Coffs Harbour - Not identified (Zone 3) 12. Melbourne - 15oC (Zone 4) 13. Hobart - 12oC (Zone 4) Temperature zones as identified in AS4234 are noted adjacent for comparative purposes. Between the two sources of information, it would appear that the generalised zonings in AS4234 are not suitable in all cases. We would recommend the following variations: For Canberra, we would recommend that it be considered as a Zone 4 location, as should any highland areas. Perth would appear more suited to category Zone 1, rather than the current Zone 3. Brisbane, Geraldton and Kalgoorlie should be located in Zone 1, rather than Zone 3.

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RECOMMENDED BCA AND AUSTRALIAN STANDARD AMENDMENTS

A number of opportunities exist for implementing energy efficiency provisions in respect of SHW systems in commercial buildings, i.e. Volume 2 - Class 2 to Class 9. The following provides a number of potential recommendations, which could be included, either directly in the BCA, or alternatively included in Australian Standards, that are referenced in the BCA. Recent amendments to AS3500.4.2 now specify a number of mandatory minimum energy efficiency requirements for hot water supply systems. These amendments include: Provision of insulation on cold water pipe between storage water heaters and the closest valve; The first 500mm of the outlet pipe or to an external heat trap to be insulated; The primary flow and return pipes between a storage water heater and auxiliary heaters to be insulated; Vent pipes to 300mm above the working water level of the hot water system to be insulated; On systems with multiple hot water heaters, the whole hot water manifold and 500mm past the hot water outlet branch from the last hot water heater to be insulated; Hot water system pipe sections in specific locations to be insulated; and All new or replacement hot water systems to be installed with a heat trap.

Some minimum amendments that are recommended for inclusion in the BCA include: 1. All hot water systems to be installed in accordance with the latest Section 6A amendments to AS/NZS 2500.4.2; 2. All hot water pipe work and associated valves, strainers etc, to be insulated i.e. the amended AS/NZS 3500.4.2 does not require insulation of the entire heating water piping system; 3. Where hot water service areas require differing temperatures, i.e. kitchens at 80oC nominal and 60oC nominal to general amenities areas, separate heating water systems or booster heaters shall be supplied to the high temperature areas, to avoid excess heating for the areas with lower temperature requirements; 4. Storage water heaters to be designed to avoid (or minimise) water loss due to expansion and any pipe work between the storage water heater and any expansion devices to be insulated; 5. Heating water systems in commercial installations which do not require draw down overnight to be fitted with time control devices; 6. Any in-line water storage devices, in addition to the storage water heaters, to be insulated; 7. Any hot water system which is utilised for space heating purposes shall be a separate heating system to the domestic hot water systems for potable water, unless the heating system is a wood fired storage system, solar or similar; 8. A minimum of triple A rated (as rated on the WSAA web site) showerheads and tapware to be installed;
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9. Generally a means of educating the end user that the use of infrequent energy consuming systems such as spas, etc. or systems in holiday homes with infrequent usage should be shut down when the spaces are unoccupied. Alternatively the system should be fitted with mandatory (but over-rideable) time clocks to ensure automatic shutdown when not in use; 10. Where alternative fuel systems to electricity are available, i.e. natural gas, that serve a multitude of units etc. it is recommended that the lower greenhouse gas emission fuel source be the preferred design solution. Instantaneous heaters are also more efficient in many instances to storage water heaters. We are unsure at this stage however as to how it would be possible to mandate this as a requirement in a regulatory document such as the BCA, although they could be referenced in the performance requirements. An option could be for a set of best practice design notes be developed which could perhaps be referenced within the BCA.

In relation to the above, concessions could be given for water heaters which are solar or heat pump types due to their greater efficiency. However the potential does exist that a future replacement may be back to a standard storage hot water system and energy inefficiencies will then occur. If these systems are installed their installation may need to be managed to ensure that any replacement of heating water systems also be included under the BCA approval process. We also recommend the development of an additional standard that is then referenced in the BCA. This standard would be: 1. an Australian Standard for boiling water units, which will stipulate minimum thermal insulation values and general minimum energy efficiency requirements

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APPENDICES
Appendix A: Appendix B: Appendix C: Appendix D: Appendix E: Appendix f: Building Forms Standard SHW System Definitions and Features Application Sizing Guides Service Hot Water Sizing Guide Usage Profiles References

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Appendix A

Building Forms
The following building forms were developed by the ABCB Office and the Working Groups to provide building shapes that are thermally representative of buildings of a particular class but of varying size. Form A
total FECA total NLA Floors aspect ratio NLA/floor Length Depth floor-floor 10,000 8,500 10 1:1 850 31.6 31.6 3.6 m2 m m m m2 m2

Form B
total FECA total NLA Floors aspect ratio NLA/floor Length Depth floor-floor 2,000 1,700 3 2:1 567 36.5 18.3 3.6 m2 m m m m2 m2

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Form C
total FECA total NLA Floors aspect ratio NLA/floor Length Depth floor-floor 1,000 950 1 1:1 950 31.6 31.6 6.0 m2 m m m m2 m2

Form D
total FECA total NLA Floors aspect ratio NLA/floor Length Depth floor-floor 500 475 1 5:1 475 50.0 10.0 3.3 m2 m m m m2 m2

Form E
total FECA total NLA Floors aspect ratio NLA/floor Length Depth floor-floor 200 190 1 2:1 190 20.0 10.0 3.3 m2 m m m m2 m2

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Appendix B

STANDARD SHW SYSTEM DEFINITIONS and FEATURES

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Storage

Instantaneous

SHW System
Centralised SHW

Application
Form A-Class 2, Form A-Class 5, Form BClass 2, Form B-Class 5, Form B-Class 6, Form C-Class 6, Form C-Class 8, Form D-Class 5, Form D-Class 9,

Control
water temp. water off thermostat, pump - time clock

Maximum pipe lengths


50 to 80 m

Circulating pumps
yes

multiple unit scheduling


All on together

heating unit configuration


parallel

no

yes

Centralised SHW

Storage

Form A-Class 2, Form A-Class 3, Form AClass 5, Form B-Class 2, Form B-Class 3, Form B-Class 5, Form B-Class 6, Form BClass 9, Form C-Class 6, Form C-Class 9, Form D-Class 3, Form D-Class 5, Form D-Class 9,

yes

no

water temp. storage tank water thermostat, pump - time clock

50 to 80 m

yes

Typically managed by a microprocessor and minimum water flow rates

parallel

Localised SHW

Form A-Class 2, Form B-Class 2, Form BClass 6, Form C-Class 6, Form C-Class 8, Form D-Class 5, Form D-Class 6, Form D-Class 8, Form E-Class 2, Form E-Class 3,

no

yes

water temp. water off thermostat

10 to 20 m

no

n/a

n/a

Localised Storage SHW

Form A-Class 2, Form A-Class 5, Form BClass 2, Form B-Class 5, Form B-Class 6, Form B-Class 9, Form C-Class 6, Form C-Class 9, Form D-Class 5, Form DClass 6, Form E-Class 2, Form E-Class 3, Form E-Class 5,

yes

no

water temp. storage tank water thermostat

10 to 20 m

no

n/a

n/a

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Storage

Instantaneous

SHW System
Hybrid Centralised SHW

Application
Form A-Class 2, Form A-Class 3, Form AClass 5, Form B-Class 2, Form B-Class 3, Form B-Class 5, Form B-Class 6, Form BClass 9, Form C-Class 6, Form C-Class 8, Form C-Class 9, Form D-Class 3, Form D-Class 5, Form D-Class 9,

Control
water temp. water off thermostat, pump - time clock

Maximum pipe lengths


50 to 80 m

Circulating pumps
yes

multiple unit scheduling


Typically managed by a microprocessor and minimum water flow rates

heating unit configuration


parallel

yes

yes

Notes:
1. The hybrid version is the close-coupled instantaneous heat source fitted to storage systems. 2. Maximum pipe lengths are dependant upon available water pressures, suitable heater locations, pumping systems, piping insulation. No maximum or recommended allowable piping lengths are stipulated in any literature reviewed as part of this report

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Appendix C

APPLICATION SIZING GUIDES

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Sizing Guide Commercial Applications


Application BCA Class 9C 2 2 2 2 2 Hotels/motels 3 Outlet type Peak periods Peak spread (Hrs) 3 hr 1 hr Hot water usage (L/person UNO) 18L per patient 15L 2L hr 1 hr 7L per sink full 10L per meal 50L per week 1 hr 18L per person, allow 1.5 people per room 6L per 3 course meal 180L per 2 hours 55L per hour or 7L per 25 glasses 15L per person 4 L per person 4L per client 3L per meal 5.5L per 3 course meal 180L per 2 hrs Allow 70L per machine per hr. 60L per bath 20L per person 20L per person, assume 30% usage 20L per person, assume 200% usage

Aged Homes Residential

Showers Showers Basins Kitchen Sink Dishwashing machine Clothes washing machine Showers

9:00am 7:00am and 6:00pm Variable 8:00am and 8:00pm 8:00am and 8:00pm variable 8:00am

3 3 3 3 3 Offices Retail - hairdressing Retail take-away Retail - restaurant Retail - restaurant Retail - Laundry All Miscellaneous Gymnasiums Factories light Factories - heavy 5 6 6 6 6 6 All

Dishwashing sinks Dishwashing Machine Glass washing machines Glass washing machines Clothes washing machines General showers rarely used Basins Dishwashing sink Dishwashing sink Dishwashing machine Clothes washing machine Baths Showers Showers Showers

10:00am and 10:00pm 10:00am and 10:00pm Weekdays Weekends Variable Variable Variable 12:00 noon 9:00am, 12:00 noon, 8:00pm 9:00am, 12:00 noon, 8:00pm Variable Various Variable 4:00 pm 4:00 pm

2 hrs 2 hrs 3 hrs 6 hrs 4 hrs 8 hrs 4 hrs 2 hrs 2 hrs 2 hrs 8 hrs 1 4 hrs 1 hr 1 hr

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Appendix D

SERVICES HOT WATER SIZING GUIDE


WATER FLOW RATES

Fittings

Outlet Flow (L/s) Hot water Cold water 0.20 to 0.30 0.30 0.03 0.20 to 0.30 0.10 0.20 to 0.30 0.10 0.10 0.3 0.10 0.20 to 0.30 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.20

Typical mixed water temperature oC 40 55 - 60 Cold water only 55 35 Cold water only 55 - 60 55 - 60 40 Cold water only 60 55 55 40 82 60

Typical usage period (min) 5 0.5 1-2 0.5-1 1-2 0.5 5-10 1.5 4-5 1-2 3-5 25 1 1

Bath Cleaners Sink Drinking Fountain Dishwashing machine Basin Hose Cock Laboratory outlet Stock pot Shower Toilet Cistern Washing machine small Kitchen sink Laundry trough Spa bath Restaurant sinks Glass washer

0.20 to 0.30 0.30 0.20 to 0.30 0.10 0.10 0.30 0.10 0.3 0.20 to 0.30 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.20 0.25

Source: AIRAH Millennium Handbook Edition and Dux

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Appendix E

USAGE PROFILES

The profiles in the following tables are shown as a percent of the maximum activity level.

The table entries S/S/PH means Saturday / Sunday / Public Holiday.

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Class 2 - Apartments
(hour ending) Weekday occupancy lights office power hvac shw S/S/PH occupancy lights office power hvac shw 95 5 5 100 0 95 5 5 100 0 95 5 5 100 0 95 5 5 100 0 95 5 5 100 20 95 10 5 100 20 95 40 25 100 80 95 40 25 100 60 50 20 10 100 40 50 10 10 100 20 50 10 5 100 10 50 10 15 100 10 50 10 15 100 20 50 10 15 100 20 50 10 15 100 10 50 20 25 100 10 50 35 25 100 10 95 60 40 100 20 95 80 35 100 20 95 80 15 100 20 95 80 10 100 60 95 50 10 100 50 95 25 5 100 10 95 5 5 100 0 95 5 5 100 0 95 5 5 100 0 95 5 5 100 0 95 5 5 100 0 95 5 5 100 20 95 10 5 100 20 95 40 15 100 80 95 40 15 100 60 50 20 5 100 40 25 10 5 100 10 25 10 5 100 10 25 10 15 100 10 25 10 15 100 10 25 10 5 100 10 25 10 5 100 10 25 10 5 100 10 25 25 5 100 10 50 25 35 100 20 95 80 35 100 20 95 80 15 100 20 95 80 10 100 60 95 50 10 100 50 95 25 5 100 10 95 5 5 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

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Class 3 - Motel
(hour ending) Weekday occupanc y lights office power hvac shw S/S/PH occupanc y lights office power hvac shw 70 5 10 100 0 70 5 10 100 0 70 5 10 100 0 70 5 10 100 0 70 5 10 100 0 70 25 10 100 20 70 80 15 100 60 70 80 15 100 60 50 50 15 100 50 50 20 15 100 20 20 20 15 100 10 20 20 15 100 10 20 20 15 100 10 20 20 15 100 10 20 20 15 100 10 30 20 15 100 10 50 20 15 100 30 50 50 30 100 50 50 50 30 100 50 50 50 30 100 30 70 50 30 100 30 80 50 30 100 50 90 50 10 100 10 90 5 10 100 0 90 5 10 100 0 90 5 10 100 0 90 5 10 100 0 90 5 10 100 0 90 5 10 100 0 90 25 10 100 20 90 80 15 100 80 80 80 15 100 80 50 50 15 100 50 10 20 10 100 10 10 20 10 100 10 10 20 10 100 10 10 20 10 100 10 10 20 15 100 10 10 20 15 100 10 20 20 15 100 10 50 20 15 100 30 50 50 30 100 50 70 50 30 100 50 70 50 30 100 30 80 50 30 100 30 90 50 30 100 50 90 50 10 100 10 90 5 10 100 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

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Class 5 - Offices
(hour ending) Weekday occupancy lights office power hvac shw Saturday occupancy lights office power hvac shw Sunday occupancy lights office power hvac shw Public Hol. occupancy lights office power hvac shw 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 25 100 45 0 0 50 100 55 0 0 50 100 55 0 0 50 100 55 0 0 40 100 55 0 0 40 100 55 0 0 40 100 55 0 0 25 100 45 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 25 100 45 0 0 50 100 55 0 0 50 100 55 0 0 50 100 55 0 0 50 100 55 0 0 50 100 55 0 0 50 100 55 0 0 25 100 45 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 100 0 25 100 45 100 20 90 100 95 100 20 97 100 100 100 30 97 100 100 100 10 97 100 100 100 40 97 100 100 100 40 97 100 100 100 10 97 100 100 100 10 97 100 100 100 40 97 100 100 100 10 75 100 80 100 5 25 100 45 0 5 10 100 40 0 0 2 100 40 0 0 2 100 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 0 10 40 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

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Class 6 - Retail
(hour ending) Weekday occupanc y lights display lights hvac shw S/S/PH occupanc y lights display lights hvac shw 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 100 0 10 100 70 100 5 20 100 70 100 20 20 100 70 100 10 15 100 70 100 20 25 100 70 100 80 25 100 70 100 80 15 100 70 100 80 15 100 70 100 60 15 100 70 100 10 15 100 70 100 60 5 100 70 100 60 5 100 70 0 60 0 10 0 0 30 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 100 0 10 100 70 100 5 20 100 70 100 20 20 100 70 100 10 15 100 70 100 20 25 100 70 100 80 25 100 70 100 80 15 100 70 100 80 15 100 70 100 60 15 100 70 100 10 15 100 70 100 60 5 100 70 100 60 5 100 70 0 60 0 10 0 0 30 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

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Class 7 Warehouse
(hour ending) Weekday occupanc y lights power hvac shw Saturday occupanc y lights power hvac shw 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 20 10 0 100 10 20 30 0 100 10 20 30 0 100 10 20 30 0 100 10 10 5 0 100 10 10 5 0 100 10 10 5 0 100 10 10 5 0 100 10 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 20 15 40 0 100 20 70 100 0 100 20 90 100 0 100 30 90 100 0 100 10 90 100 0 100 10 50 100 0 100 30 85 100 0 100 10 85 100 0 100 10 85 100 0 100 30 20 100 0 0 10 0 40 0 0 10 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

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Class 8 - Workshop
(hour ending) Weekday occupanc y lights power hvac shw S/S/PH occupanc y lights power hvac shw 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 10 10 0 100 0 10 10 0 100 0 30 30 0 100 10 30 30 0 100 10 30 30 0 100 10 30 30 0 100 10 10 15 0 100 10 10 15 0 100 10 10 15 0 100 10 10 15 0 100 10 10 15 0 100 0 5 5 0 0 0 5 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 10 10 0 100 20 20 30 0 100 20 95 100 0 100 20 95 100 0 100 30 95 100 0 100 10 95 100 0 100 10 50 100 0 100 30 95 100 0 100 30 95 100 0 100 30 95 100 0 100 30 95 100 0 100 10 30 50 0 100 10 10 30 0 100 0 10 30 0 100 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Class 9a - Healthcare
(hour ending) All days occupanc y lights power hvac shw 0 5 10 0 0 0 5 10 0 0 0 5 10 0 0 0 5 10 0 0 0 5 10 0 0 0 5 10 100 0 5 50 10 100 10 40 90 20 100 20 70 90 50 100 20 80 90 75 100 30 80 90 75 100 10 80 90 75 100 40 80 90 75 100 40 80 90 75 100 10 80 90 75 100 10 80 90 75 100 40 80 90 60 100 10 30 90 20 100 5 0 90 10 0 5 0 90 10 0 0 0 5 10 0 0 0 5 10 0 0 0 5 10 0 0 0 5 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

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Appendix F

References
A number of sources where reviewed in preparing this report as follows:

AS/NZS 1056.1: 1991 AS/NZS 1056.4: 1997 AS1361: 1995 AS2712: 1993 AS2813: 1985 AS2984: 1987 AS3498: 1995 AS3500 AS3500.1.1:1998 AS3500.1.2:1998 AS3500.4.1:1997 AS3500.4.2:1997 AS3500.5: 2002 AS4234: 1994 AS4445.1: 1997 AS4552: 2000 AS5601: 2002

Storage Water Heaters, Part 1: General Requirements. Storage Water Heaters, Part 4: Daily energy consumption calculations for electric types. Electric heat exchange water heaters-for domestic applications. Solar Hot Water-Design and Construction. Solar Water Heaters-Method of test for thermal performanceSimulator method. Solar water heaters-Method of test for thermal performanceOutdoor test method. Authorisation requirements for plumbing heaters and hot water storage tanks. National Plumbing and Drainage Code Water supply Performance requirements Water supply Acceptable solutions Hot water supply systems Performance requirements Hot water supply systems Acceptable solutions Domestic Installations Solar water heaters-Domestic and heat pump-Calculation of energy consumption. Solar Water Heating- Domestic water heating systemsPerformance rating procedure using indoor test methods. Gas Water Heaters. Gas Installations. products-Water

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AIRAH Application Manual DA16 Air Conditioning water piping, January 1994, Australian Institute of Refrigeration Air Conditioning and Heating and Australian Construction Services AIRAH Millennium Edition Handbook January 2000, Australian Institute of Refrigeration Air Conditioning and Heating. Hot Water Manual, 2000, Rheem Australia Limited. ASHRAE 1999 Handbook HVAC Applications, 1999, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, Incorporated. ASHRAE 1997 Handbook HVAC Fundamentals, 1997, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, Incorporated. ABCB Energy Efficiency Measures BCA Volume 2 (Housing Provisions) Regulatory Proposal and Regulatory Assessment Statement, March 2002, Australian Building Codes Board and Australian Greenhouse Office ASHRAE/IES 90.1-1989 Energy Efficient Design of New Buildings Except Low Rise Residential Buildings, 1989, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, Incorporated and Illuminating Engineering Society of North America ASHRAE/IES 90.1-1989 Users Manual, 1992, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, Incorporated and Illuminating Engineering Society of North America DUX Hot Water Catalogue, 1999 Dux Australia Rheem Hot Water catalogue, Rheem Australia Rinnai Hot Water Manual, 2000 edition, Rinnai Australia

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