Final Sap Ex-Vi

Truba Group of Institutes, Bhopal
INDEX
1
S.NO CONTENTS Page No
1 Academic Calender 2
2 Scheme 3
3 EX-601 Communication Engineering (CE) 4-17
3.1 Syllabus 4
3.2 Lesson Plan 5-7
3.3 Points To Ponder 8-12
3.4 University Question Papers 13-17
4 EX-602 Control System (CS) 18-38
4.1 Syllabus 18
4.2 Lesson Plan 19-21
4.3 List Of Experiment 22
4.5 Important Questions For Interviews/Viva 27-28
5 EX-603 Switchgear And Protection (S&P) 39-62
5.1 Syllabus 39
6 EX-604 Electronics Instrumentation (EI) 63-79
6.1 Syllabus 63
7 EX-605 Energy Conservation And Management (ECM) 80-98
7.1 Syllabus 80
Academic Calender
1 Registration, deposition of tution fee 11/1/13
2 Commencement of classes 15/1/13
3 Issue of I set of assignment 18/1/13
4 Submission of I set of assignment 28/1/13
5 Return of I set of assignment 30/1/13
6 Issue of II set of assignment 31/1/13
7 Display of attendance of student upto 31 jan 2013 4/2/13
8 Submission of II set of assignment 8/2/13
9 Return of II set of assignment 11/2/13
10 Issue of III set of assignment 12/3/13
11 Display of attendance of student upto 28 feb 2013 1/3/13
12
Extracurricular activities as per individual institute
requirements
3/3/13 to
8/3/13
13 First mid sem test (first & second unit)
13/3/13 to
15/3/13
14
Display of Result of I Mid sem Exam & submit of result
analysis 28/3/13
15
Intimation to parents for shortage of attendance,result
of Imid sem exam 29/3/13
16 Submission of III set of assignment 29/3/13
17 Return of III set of assignment 30/3/13
18 Issue of IV and V set of assignment 3/4/13
19 Display of attendance of student upto 31 March 2013 1/4/13
20 Submission of University Exan Form
2/4/13 to
18/4/13
21 Submission of IV and V set of assignment 10/4/13
22 Return of IV and V set of assignment 15/4/13
23 Internal Practical,Viva Voice test/PUT
8/4/13 to
12/4/13
24
Display of Result of PUT Exam & submit of result
analysis 20/4/13
25
Intimation to parents for shortage of attendance,result
of PUT 20/4/13
26 End of Regular Teaching 30/4/13
27 Remedial Classes
First week of
May2013
28 Display of attendance of student upto 30 April 2013 1/5/13
29 University Practical,Viva Voice Exam 4/5/13
30 University Semester Exam
10/5/13 to
31/5/13
2
3
Syllabus: EX601 COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Unit-1. Fourier series, Fourier Transform and its properties, Probability, random variables &
their moments, their significance, convolution, auto correlation, cross Correlation & power
spectral density, Gaussian & Rayleigh probability density Function, mean, variance & standard
deviation, central limit theorem, voltage & Power decibel scales. Signal Processing : Types of
signal, deterministic & random, periodic & non Periodic, analog & discrete, energy & power
signals, Representation of sinusoid in different forms & their conversion
Unit-2 Need of modulation in a communication system, block schematic of a typical
Communication system. AM modulation system, modulation index, generation & detection of
AM wave, side bands & power content in an AM wave, DSB-SC, SSB, their methods of
generation & detection, vestigial side Band modulation, AM transmitter block diagram,
comparison of various AM system, modulation & demodulation circuits. Relationship between
phase & freq. modulation, FM wave & its spectrum, phasor diagram of a narrow band FM signal,
wide band FM, methods of generation & detection of FM, discriminators, pre-emphasis & de-
emphasis, Stereophonic FM broadcasting, FM transmitters.
Unit-3 TRF receiver & its limitations, necessity of heterodyning, super heterodyning Receivers,
IF amplifiers, selection of intermediate frequency. RF amplifiers, detectors, AGC, AVC, FM
receivers, AFC.
Unit-4 Nyquist sampling theorem, TDM, pulse modulations & PCM, quantization error,
necessity of non linear quantizer, A-law, -law, FSK & PSK, QPSK, QAM. Source of noise,
noise figure, noise bandwidth, effective noise temperature, performance of AM, FM & digital
system in presence of noise.
Unit-5 Satellite system block diagram, satellite freq. bands, satellite multiple access Format like
TDMA, FDMA, transponders, earth station & satellite eclipses, Link calculation
4
LECTURE PLAN
Department: Electrical And
Electronics
Session: Jan-Jun 2013
Name of Faculty: Ms Shraddha Sharma Semester: VI
Subject: Communication
Engineering
Sub Code: EX-601
Time Schedule : Total expected period 50 Extra Periods (if required)-
Day Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Max. Available
No. of
Period
Lect.
No.
Contents Date of
Completion
Reference (page
no.)
1.
Fourier series
R2(1)
2.
, Fourier Transform
R2(19)
3.

Its properties
R2(35)
4. Probability, random variables & their momets their
sigificace
R1 (57)
R1(60)
5. convolution, , auto correlation R1(30),R2(59)
6. , cross Correlation power spectral density R1 (29),R1(99)
7. Gaussian probability density Function Rayleigh
probability density Function
R1(76,81)
8. mean,
variance & standard deviation
R1 82()
9.
central limit theorem, voltage & Power decibel scales.
R1 (87)
10. Signal Processing : Types of signal, deterministic &
random, periodic & non Periodic,
R5(3-9)
11. analog & discrete, energy & power signals
Representation forms & their conversion
of sinusoid in different form.
R 5(3-9)
12.
Unit Test1
13. Need of modulation in a communication system, block
schematic of a typical
Communication system
R4(3-1_3-6)
14. ,
AM modulation system, modulation index
R2(245-297)
15. ,
generation & detection of AM wave, side bands &
R2(245-297)
5
power content in an AM wave
16. DSB-SC, their methods of generation & detection
SSB
R2(209)
R2(223)
17.
Vestigial side band modulation
R2(239)
18.
AM transmitter block diagram
R2(275)
19. Comparision of various AM system, Modulation &
Demodulation circuit
R2(297)
20. Relationship between phase & freq modulation,FM
wave & its spectrum
R2(306)
21. Phasor diagram of narrow band FM signal,wideband
FM.
R2(308)
22.
Method of generation and detection of FM
R2(337,339)
23.
discriminators, pre-emphasis & de-emphasis
R2(339,365)
24.
Stereophonic FM broadcasting, FM transmitter.
R2(325)
25.
Unit test 2
26.
,. TRF receiver & its limitations
R2(279)
27. necessity of heterodyning, super heterodyning
Receivers,
R2(280)
28.
IF amplifiers, selection of intermediate frequency
R2(285-287)
29.
RF amplifiers,
R4(5-23_5-28),
30. RF detectors R4(5-23_5-28)
31. AGC, AVC R2(286)
32.
FM receivers
R2(345)
33. AFC. R4(6-5_6-6)
34.
Unit test3
35.
Nyquist sampling theorem
R2 172()
36.
TDM, , pulse modulations
R2(207)
6
37.
& PCM
R2(407)
38. quantization error, necessity of non linear quantizer R2 (409)
39.
A-law, -law
R4(7-47_7-49)
40.
FSK,
R2(430)
41.
& PSK
R2 (432)
42.
QPSK, QAM
. R4(8-23_8-
34,8-51_8-55)
43.
Source of noise, noise figure, noise bandwidth,
effective noise temperature
.
R2(166,188,17
9,183)
44. performance of AM,
FM & digital system in presence of noise.
R4(10-1_10-34)
45.
Test 4
46. Unit-5 Satellite system block diagram, satellite freq.
bands
R4 (529-530)
47. satellite multiple access Format like TDMA,
FDMA, ,
. R3 (233-243),
(223-232)
48. Transponders, earth station & satellite eclipses, R3 (75-79)
(107-110)(51-
53)
49. Link calculation R3 (124-129)
50.
Unit test5
7
reference Title Author Publication
R1 Communication System Taub & Shilling TMH
R2 Communication system Singh & Sapre TMH
R3 Satellite Communication T.pratt Wiley India Edition
R4 Communication Engineering J.S Katre Tech.Max Publication
R5 Digital Signal Processing Salivahanan TMH
Points To Ponder
Unit-1
Representation of a function f(t) by the linear combination of element of a closed set of
infinite mutually orthogonal function is known as fourier series.
Fourier Transform is a mathematical tool which enable one to do frequency
domain analysis of non-periodic signal.
Main properties of fourier transform are-Linearity; Time scaling, Duality, Time shifting,
Frequency Shifting, Area under g(t), Area underX (f), Differenciation in Time
Domain, Integration in Time Domain, Convolution in Time domain. Convolution in
Frequency domain.
Probability is defined as number of possible favorable outcomes by total number of
possible equally likely outcomes. P(A)=limN
A
\N.
Random variable is used to signify a rule by which a real by which a real number is
assigned to each possible outcome of an experiment
Convolution is a powerful way of characterizing the input-output relationship of time
invariant linear system.there are two convolution theorems one for time domain and one
for frequency domain.
Correlation gives a measure of similarity between two data sequence. In this process two
signal sequences are compared and the degree to which the signal are similar is
computed.
For two sequence x(n).and y(n) cross-correlation function r
xy
(l) is defined as- r
xy
(l)
=
When x(n)=y(n) the cross correlation function becomes the auto correlation function.
Gaussian probability density function is defined as-f(x)=1/2
2
e-(x-m)2/2
2
.
Rayleigh probability density function is defined as- f(r)=0r.
Central limit theorem indicates that the probability density of a sum of N independent
random variable tends to approach a Gaussian density as the number N increases.
Signal processing is an area of applied mathematics that deals with the operation or on
analysis of signal in either discrete or continuous time to perform useful operation on
those signals.
8
Signals can be classified as Continuous time and Discrete time signals, Periodic and
Non-periodic signals, Analog and Digital signals, Real and Complex
signals, Deterministic and Random signals, Even and Odd signals, Energy and Power
signals.
Unit-2
The process by which some characteristics of a signal called carrier is varied in
accordance with instantaneous value of another signal called modulating signal .signals
containing information to be transmitted are referred to as modulating signals. This
information bearing signal is also called as baseband signal.The carrier frequency is
greater than the modulating frequencies. The signal resulting from the process of
modulation is called as modulated signal.
Modulation is of two type Amplitude modulation and Angle modulation.
Amplitude modulation is defined as a system of modulation in which the amplitude of the
carrier is made proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
There are two device for the generation of AM wave-Square law modulator
,Switching modulator.
Demodulation or detection is the reverse process of modulation .Which provide a mean
of recovering from an incoming modulated wave an output that is proportional to the
original modulating wave.
Two methods are used for the demodulation of AM signal namely Square law detector
and Envelope detector
By multiplying the modulating signal m(t) with a sinusoidal carrier signal cos ct, we
obtain a method for achieving frequency translation ,which is known as DSB-SC.(Double
side band suppressed carrier)..The modulated signal has c+m and c-m frequency
terms. The two terms mentioned above are known as sidebands,lower sideband and upper
sideband respectively
Two methods of generation of DSB-SC is balance modulator and switching modulator
and for detection synchronous detection.
Transmission bandwidth of standard AM as well as DSB-SC modulated wave is 2W Hz
or 2 fm i.e, twice the bandwidth W.
Information contained in the USB is exactly identical to that carried by LSB ,So
by transmitting both the sideband we are transmitting the same information twice.
Hence when only one sideband is transmitted it is referred to as single sideband
suppressed carrier(SSB).
Two methods for the generation of SSB are-Selective filtering method and Phase
shift method and for detection synchronous detection method is used.
Vestigial side band transmission(VSB)-The stringent frequency-response
requirements on the sideband filter in SSB-SC can be relaxed by allowing a part
of the unwanted side band to appear in the output of the modulator. In this
modulation scheme one sideband is passed almost completely where as just a
trace or vestige of the other sideband is retained.
9
Methods for the generation of VSB are Filter method and Phase discriminator
method.
A device that is capable of transmitting amplitude modulated wave is in
general ,known as AM transmitter. AM transmitter not only performs the
modulation process, but also raises the power level of a modulated signal to
desired extent for effective radiation.
Angle modulation is the process of varying the total phase angle of a carrier wave
in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signals, keeping
amplitude of the carrier constant.
Angle modulation is of two type Phase modulation and Frequency modulation.
Modulation index is the ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulation
frequency m. Depending on the value of modulation index , the frequency
modulation is of two type-Narrow band FM and Wideband FM.
Two methods for the generation of FM are Indirect method and Direct method.
And for demodulation the two methods are Slope Detector and phase difference
detector.
Stereo multiplexing is a type of FDM which is specially designed to transmit two
separate signals via same carrier.
Unit-3
TRF stands for tuned radio frequency. Its the simplest radio receiver which perform the
following function- Interception, Selection, RF amplification, Detection, Audio
Amplification, Reproduction.
The performance of receiver is improved by a process known as heterodyning. A
receiver based on this process is known as superheterodyne receiver.
Performance of receiver is examined by following features-Selectivity, Sensitivity, and
Fidelity.
A superheterodyne receiver block diagram consist up of Antenna, RF amplifier, Local
oscillator, Mixer or Detector, IF amplifier, Second Detector, AF voltage and power
amplifier. And Speaker.
Intermediate frequency are tuned voltage amplifier. most of the receiver gain is provided
by IF amplifier.
R.F amplifier is a small signal tuned amplifier with tuned circuit both in the input side
and the output side. A radio receiver always has an RF section which is a tunable circuit
connected to the antenna terminals.
Main advantage of RF amplifier are as follows-1)Greater gain i.e, better
sensitivity.2)Improved signal/noise ratio.3)Improved image frequency
rejection.4)Improved coupling of the receiver to the antenna.5)Better sensitivity.
Automatic gain control or automatic volume control is an adaptive system found in many
electronics devices. In this the average output signal level is feedback to adjust the gain to
an appropriate level for a range of input signal level.
AGC effectively reduce the volume if the signal is strong and raises it when it is weaker.
It is also called as compressor expander.
10
FM receiver is also known as superheterodyne receiver. Its operating frequency is higher
than AM receiver, there is need of limiting and de-emphasis in FM.
AFC stands for automatic frequency controller. AFC is a method to automatically
maintain a tuning of electromagnetic radiation signal to desired frequency.
Unit-4
Nyquist sampling theorem-A signal whose spectrum is bandlimited to B Hz[G()=0 for |
| >2B] can be reconstructed exactly from its samples taken uniformly at a rate R>2B
Hz(samples per second). In other words ,the minimum sampling frequency is fs=2B Hz .
There are four ways to generate sampled signal these are-Instantaneous sampling, Ideal
sampling, Natural sampling, Flat-top sampling.
Aliasing Effect-When a band limited signal is sampled at rate lower than nyquist rate
fo<2fm or sampling interval is higher than nyquist interval (T>1/2 fm), then periodically
repeating F() in the spectrum of sampled signal overlap with neighbouring ones.
The technique of separating the signal in time is called time division multiplexing(TDM).
The amplitude of a constant width, constant position varied in proportion with the
instantaneous magnitude of the modulating signal is called as pulse amplitude
modulation(PAM).
When we represent each quantized level by a code number and transmit the code number
rather than the sample value itself. The digits of the binary representation of the code
number are transmitted as pulses. Thus the system of transmission is known as Pulse
Code Modulation(PCM).
Quantization is the process of converting a discrete-time continuous amplitude signal
such as sampled version of a analog signal in to discrete-amplitude discrete-time signal.
This is accomplished by approximating the amplitude of each sample value to the nearest
value from a set of predetermined discrete amplitude levels known as quantization level.
Companding is the process of compressing and then expanding ,to keep signal to noise
ratio high.
There are two methods of analog companding
In the A-law companding the compressor characteristic is piecewise ,made up of a linear
segment for low level inputs and a logarithmic segment for high level input.
11
In the -law companding, the compressor characteristic is continuous. It is approximately
linear for smaller values of input levels and logarithmic for high input level.
ASK(amplitude shift keying) is a form of digital modulation.
FSK(frequency shift keying) is a form of constant-amplitude angle modulation similar to
standard frequency modulation(FM) expect the modulating signal is a binary signal that
varies between two discrete voltage levels rather than a continuously changing analog
waveform. FSK is also known as BPSK.
(PSK)Phase shift keying is an M- ary digital modulation, with PSK the input is a binary
digital signal and there are a limited number of output phases possible .Before
modulating the carrier ,the input binary information is encoded into groups of bits . In a
group ,the number of bits ranges from 1 to 12 or more.The number of output phases is
defined by M and determined by the number of bits in the group(n).. Here M=2N.
N=Number of bits necessary. M=Number of condition possible with N bits.
QPSK(quadrature PSK) is an M-ary encoding scheme where N=2 and M=4.In QPSK ,
four output phases are possible for a single carrier frequency.
QAM stands for quadrature amplitude modulation .It is both i.e, an analog and digital
modulation scheme. It is a combination of amplitude modulation and phase shift
keying .QAM is a method of combining two amplitude-modulated signals into a single
channel,thereby doubling the effective bandwidth.
The undesired electrical signals that are introduced with a message signal, during the
transmission or reception or processing of the signal is commonly known as Noise. There
are two sources of noise- External Noise and Internal Noise.
Noise figure is defined as the ratio of the signal to noise power supplied to the input
terminal of the receiver or amplifier to the signal to noise power applied to the output
load resistor.
Unit-5
A satellite communication is basically an electronic communication package placed in
orbit around the earth. The prime objective of the satellite is to aid communication
transmission from one point on or near earth to another.
Basic structure of satellite communication system consist up of user, Terrestrial system,
Earth station and Satellite.
Basic block diagram of earth station consist up of input baseband signal, encoder
modulator, up converter and high power amplifier these all combine and make the
transmitter side then signal is send to a polarized diplexer and then to the antenna from
where is send back to low noise amplifier, down converter, demodulator and decoder
which is combinely called as the receiver side and finally we get the output base band
signal.
Allocating frequencies to satellite services is a complicated process .Frequency bands are
allocated to various satellite services.
Multiple access is defined as the ability of services to be accessible by different users. In
satellite there are four domain that can be considered by the user to access the satellite.
12
1)FDMA-Frequency division multiple access. where n number of stations on n different
frequency bands can access the satellite.
2).TDMA-Time division multiple access where each station is allocated specific time
slots to access the satellite may be in same frequency band.
3)SDMA-Space division multiple access where different antenna beams or polarization
can be used to access the satellite, resulting in frequency re-use.
4)CDMA-Code division multiple access, where each station transmits on specific random
codes and access the satellites, resources without interference.
In a communication satellite ,a transponder is the series of interconnected units which
forms a single communication channel between the receive and
transmit antenna.A transponder consist up of a band pass filter to select the particular
channels band of frequencies ,a down converter to change the frequency from 6ghz input
to 4ghz output and an output amplifier.
Transponders are of three types-Single conversion transponder, Double conversion
transponder and Onboard processing transponder.
In any satellite system communication link, earth station is an essential element which
receives and transmit the information to the satellite network.
When the earth comes between the sun and the satellite. This is called as eclipse of the
satellite.

13

14
15
16
17
18
Syllabus: EX602 Control System
Unit-I
Modeling of dynamic systems: Electrical, Mechanical and hydraulic systems, Concept of transfer
function, Simulation of differential equations in analog computer, State space description of
dynamic systems: Open and closed loop systems, Signal flow graph, Masons formula,
Components of control systems: Error detectors (Synchros & Potentiometer), Servomotors (AC
& DC), techo generators, power amplifier, steeper motors
Unit-II
Time domain analysis of closed loop systems: Test signals, time response of first and second
order systems, Time domain performance specifications, Steady state error & error constants
Feedback control actions: Proportional, derivative and integral control. Solution of state quation:
Eigen values & eigenvectors digitalization state transitive matrix, stability Routh-Hurwit stability
analysis.
Unit-II
Characteristics equation of closed loop system root loci, construction of loci, Effect of adding,
poles and Zeros on the loci, Stability by root loci.
Unit-IV
Frequency, Domain analysis, Bode plots, Effect of adding, poles and Zeros, Polar plot, Nyquist
stability analysis, Relative stability : Gain and phase margins.
Unit-V
Frequency- Domain compensation : lead lag, Lag-lead compensation, Design of compensating
networks
19
LECTURE PLAN
Department: EX Session: JAN-JULY 2013
Name of Faculty: R.S.MEENA Semester: VI
Subject: CONTROL
SYTEM
Sub Code: EX-602
Time Schedule : Total expected period Extra Periods (if required)- 50
Day Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Max.
Available No. of Period 1 1 1 1 1 -
S.NO.
Lecture
no.
Contents
Date of
Completion References
UNIT I
1
1.
1) Introduction to the Control System
Basic control system, terminology, open
loop, closed loop system, feed forward &
feed backward control, digital control,
multivariable control system, Non- linear
control system, La place transformation,
Practical Examples.
R2:- 1-9
R4:-1-16, 20-
21;30-38
2
2-3.
Modeling Technique for Physical
System-
Different modeling technique for
physical system like Electrical,
Mechanical etc.
R1:-22-34
R2:-71-77
3
4.
Linear approximations of physical
system, the transfer function of linear
system,
R4:- 41-59
4
5-7
Block diagram algebra , unsolved &
solved examples
R2:- 31-53 NG
57-69
5
8-9 Single flow graph solved & unsolved examples
R2:- 31-53,54-70
6
10-11
Control System Components & their
Mathematical Modeling- Servo motor
ac/dc, synchros,
R1:- 52-61,124-
131,138-144 R2:-
85-106 R4:- 118-
20
A/D converters, pneumatic devices for
control, hydraulic devices for controls ,
Seminar on this topics
125, 190-198,
209-122
UNIT II
7
12-16
Time Response Studies-Test I /P signals,
Time Response of I, II & higher order
systems,
R1: 184-201 R2:-
132-155 R4:- 251
270
8
17-18
Performance specifications of II order
system.
R1:- 184-201 R2:- 132-
155
R4:- 251-270
9
19-20
Need for compensation for II order
system, control action PI, PD, PID,
solved / unsolved examples
R1:- 208-213
R2:- 178-193 R4:- 183-
188
10
21-22
Relation between state space & transfer
function, solution of state equations
R2:- 393-423
R4:- 65
11
23
stabilityRouth-Hurwit stability analysis. R2:- 227-232
UNIT- III
12
23
Time Domain Stability Analysis
Concept of stability, stability range,
Relative stability.
R1:- 251-270
R2:- 227-232 R3:-
334-343 R4:- 367-
374, 385-387
13
24-25
Characteristics equation of closed loop
system root loci
R9:- 392-393
14
26-29 construction of loci
R9:393-396
15
30
Effect of adding, poles and Zeros on the
loci, Stability by root loci.
R9:397-398
UNIT- IV
16
31-32
Frequency Domain Analysis & Stability
Analysis
Correlation between time response &
Frequency response, performance
specifications.
R1:- 327-333
R2:- 317-319
17
33-34
Polar plot, Stability analysis using Polar
plot.
R1:- 334-338
R4:-432 -446
21
18
35-38
Bode plot, determination of system
having function from plot
R2:- 287-317
R3:- 557-569
19
38-42
Fundamentals of Nyquist plot, complete
plot aspects
Solved / unsolved examples
R1:- 361-373;375-
382
UNIT- V
20
41-42 Compensation definition & types
R2:- 370-390
21
44-46
Derivation for Lag, lead, lag-Lead
Compensator
R9:630-640
22
46-50
Design of Feedback Control System
Approaches to system design. Design of
compensation in frequency domain.
R4:-536- 539 ;555-
561 ;570-574; 589-
592
References Book :
Reference
s
Title Author Publication
R1 Control system
Engineering
I.J. Nagrath and
M. Gopal,
New Age
International
R2 Modern Control
Engineering
K. Ogata PHI.
R3 Automatic Control systems B.C. Kuo PHI
R4 Control System Gopal M., TMH.
R5 Design of feed back control
Systems
Stefani, Shahian Oxford.
R6 System Design through
MATLAB control tool &
Simulink
Stringer Verlag,
U.K
U.K.
R7 Getting Started with
MATLAB
RudraPratap, Oxford.
R8 Modern Control Systems Roy Chaudhary PHI
R9 Control System Norman S. Nise John Wiley &
Sons
22
List of Experiments
State space model for classical transfer function using MATLAB.
Simulation of transfer function using operational amplifier.
Design problem: Compensating Networks of lead and lag.
Temperature controller using PID.
Transfer function of a DC generator.
Characteristics of AC servomotor.
Use of MATLAB for root loci and Bode plots of type-1, type-2 systems.
Study of analog computer and simulation of 1
st
order and 2
nd
order dynamic equations.
Formulation of proportional control on 1
st
order and 2
nd
order dynamic systems.
Feed back control of 3
rd
order dynamic Systems
Study of lead and lag compensating networks.
Effect of adding poles & zeros on root loci and bode plots of type-1, type-2 systems
through MATLAB.
Time response of second order system.
Characteristics of Synchros.
Effect of feedback on servomotors.
Determination of transfer function of A-C servomotor
Determination of transfer function of D-C motor.
Formulation of PI & PD controller and study of closed loop responses of 1
st
and 2
nd
order
dynamic systems.
23
POINTS TO PONDER
UNIT -I
Introduction of Control System:
Control systems are an integral part of modern society. Numerous applications are all around us:
The rockets fire, and the space shuttle lifts off to earth orbit; in splashing cooling water, a
metallic part is automatically machined; a self-guided vehicle delivering material to workstations
in an aerospace assembly plant glides along the floor seeking its destination. These are just a few
examples of theautomatically controlled systems that we can create. We are not the only creators
of automatically controlled systems; these systems.
Control System Definitions:
Control System:A control system consists of subsystems and processes (or plants) assembled
for the purpose of obtaining a desired output with desired performance, given a specified input.
Open loop System: a system in which the control action is totally independent of the output of
the system s called as open loop system.
Closed loop system:a system in which the control action is somehow dependent of the output
of the system s called as closed loop system.
Transfer Function: The ratio of the Laplace transform of the output response to the Laplace
transform input response.
Block Diagram: Block diagram is the pictorial representation of the cause and effect
relationship between input and output of the control system.
Signal flow graph :it is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic
equations. It consists of network in which nodes are an nested by directed branches. Each node
represents a system variable and each branch connected between two nodes acts as a signal
multiplier. Signal flow in analysis direction.
24
L1
K
Mixed node: When branch has incoming & outdoing direction is called mixed node
To determine the input output relationship up use masons formula

K
k pk
1
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System:
1. Mass (m) :
F= md
2
x(t)/d
2
t
x(t)
f(t)
friction=0
2. Linear spring
F= Kx(t)
F(t)
x
3. Friction
F=bdx(t)/dt
F(t)

UNIT 2
Time Response Analysis
Time Response Analysis of control system: Definition
The Response given by the system which is function of the time to the applied excitation is
called time response of a control system.
Transient Response:- The output variation during the time it takes to achieve its final value
is called as transient response.
Steady state response:- It is response of the system as time approaches from the time at
which transient response completely dies out.
25
Standard input signals:.
1. Unit step function also called displacement function.
1) Unit ramp function also called velocity function
2) Unit parabolic function also called acceleration function
3) Unit impulse function.
Time response of first order control system Subjected to unit step input function:
Output c(t) = 1-
( )
1
1
]
1
,
_
2
1 2
2
1
tan 1 sin
1
t n
e
nt
State space analysis:
Modern control theory is contrasted with conventional control theory in that the from
applicable to multi input multi output system which may be linear or nonlinear time invariant or
time varying, while the letter is applicable only to linear time invariant single input single output
so system. Modern control theory is essentially a time domain approach, while conventional
control theory is a complex frequency domain approach.
State: state of the system i.e dynamic behavior of the system. Initial conditions describe the
status or state of the system at t= t
o
.
State variable: The smallest set of the variables which determine the state of the dynamic system
are called state variables,
State vectors: The a state vector is a vector that determines uniquely the system state x(t) for any
time t to once the state at t=
to
is given & the input u(t) for t t
o
is specified.
State space: The n- dimensional state variables are elements of n- dimensional space called state
space. Any state can be represented by a point in the state space.
Sate space representation
X = AX+BU - state space equation
Y = CX +DU - output equation
TransferMatrix : The matrix relating Laplace transform of output to Laplace transform of input
of state space representation of a control system is known as transfer matrix.
Y(s) / X(s) = G (s) = C (SI-A)
-1
B + D
Eigen values
( I -A) =0
Solution of I-A=0 gives roots of characteristics equation & called eigen values of given
system.
UNIT 3
Stability analysis
Stability Control system:
The concept of Stability is very important to analyze and design the system. A system is said to
be stable if its response cannot be made to increase indefinitely by the application of a bounded
input excitation. If the output approaches towards infinite value for sufficiently large time, the
system said to be Unstable.
RouthHorwitzs criterion for stability analysis of control system:
26
For the stability of the system it is necessary & sufficient that each term of first column of Routh
Array of the characteristic equation be positive if a
0
> 0
,
if this condition is not met the system is
unstable & no of sign changes of the terms of the first column of the Routh Array corresponds to
the no of roots of the characteristics equation in the right half of s plane.
Root Locus:
It is a technique for finding the roots of the characteristics equation provides a graphical method
of plotting the locus of the roots in the s-plane as a given system parameter is varied over the
complete range of values.
The root locus also provides a measure of sensitivity of roots to the variation in the parameter
being considered. This technique is applicable for single as well as multiple loop system.
UNIT 4
FREQUENCY DOMAIN ANALYSIS
Bode Plot: A Bode plot consists of two graphs: one is a plot of the logarithm of the
magnitude of a sinusoidal transfer function; the other is a plot of the phase angle; both are plotted
against the frequency in logarithmic scale. By using Bode Plot determine the Gain Margin,
Phase Margin, Gain crossover frequency, Phase Crossover frequency and Stability of the system.
Nyquist Stability Criteria:
The Nyquist stability is a graphical procedure for determining absolute and relative stability of
closed loop system based on the frequency response method.
The Nyquist procedure is based a theory of Complex variables due to Caochy, Commonly
known as principle of arguments.
UNIT 5
COMPENSATION
Compensation:If the performance of a control system is not good as per desired specification
then some changes in the control system must be made in order to get the desired performance.
The performance of a control system may be described in terms if the frequency or in term of the
time domain.This can be obtained by applying compensation technique.
Types of compensation technique:
1. Cascade or Series Compensation
2. Feedback or Parallel Compensation
3. Series and Parallel Compensation
Compensating Networks: There are three types of Compensating Networks.
1. Lag Network
2. Lead Network
3. Lag-Lead Network
MATLAB has a rich collection of functions which are useful to control engineers. The control
system toolbox is built on the MATLAB platform. The toolbox is generally written as M files
27
which implements control system design, analysis & modeling techniques. A control system can
be modeled as a transfer function pole zero gain, or state space form. Continuous time & discrete
time systems can be modeled. Time response, frequency response and root locus can be graphed.
INTERVIEW QUESTION
UNIT I
Q, 1.Define the control system and control action.
Q. 2.Define open loop and closed loop system.
Q.3. Give the example of open loop and closed loop system.
Q.4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of open loop system?
Q.5. Give the advantages and disadvantages of closed loop system.
Q,6. Define the transfer function,
Q.7. Define the poles and zeros of the transfer function.
Q.8 What is understand by Block Diagram in control system?
Q,9 Define the signal flow graph in the control system.
Q.10 Explain the mechanical modeling of the system.
Q.11. Name the two types of electrical analogies for the mechanical system with
explanation.
Q. 12 compare the translational motion and rotational motion.
Q, 13. What is Masons Gain Formula ?
Q,14 Define the characteristic equation for transfer function.
Q.15 What is the effect of feedback on stability in the control system?
UNIT II
Q.1 Define the Time Response.
Q.2 Explain the transient and steady state time response,
Q.3.Give the test input signals for transient response,
Q.4 Define damping ratio andd damping frequency for time response.
Q.5 Define the order and type of the system.
Q.6 Define the delay time, rise time and peak time for time response.
Q.7What is time domain specification?
Q.8 What do mean by time constant? What is the Effect of feedback on time constant?
Q.9 What do mean by steady state error in the time response?
Q. 10 Define Error Coefficients.
Q. 11 Define the sensitivity of the control system.
Q.12 Explain the PI,PD. PID controller for the control system.
Q, 13 Define the state space analysis of control system.
Q.14 What are advantages State Space Analysis technique?
Q. 15 Explain the controllability and observability for the control system.
28
UNIT III
Q.1 Define the Stability for the control system.
Q.2 Explain the absolute and relative stability of the system.
Q.3.State Routh Hurwitz Criterion.
Q.4 Define the marginal stable system.
Q,5 Define the Root locus.
Q,6 Define the Break away point and centroid of the root loci.
Q.7 What do mean by Angle of Asymptotes?
Q.8 Explain the angle of departure and angle of arrival for root loci.
Q.9 Explain the effect of adding poles and zeros on root locus,
Q. 10 Give the limitation of Routh Hurwitz Criterion.
UNIT IV
Q.1 Define the frequency domain analysis.
Q.2 What are the advantages of frequency domain analysis?
Q.3. What is Polar Plot?
Q.4 Define the Nyquist Plot?
Q, 5 What is Bode Plot?
Q 6 Define the resonant peak, resonant frequency and bandwidth for bode plot.
Q.7 Define Gain Margin and Phase Margin for Polar Plot / Nyquist Plot.
Q 8.Define Gain Margin and Phase Margin for Bode Plot.
Q.9 Define the phase crossover and Gain crossover Frequency for Polar plot.
Q.10 Define the phase crossover and Gain crossover Frequency for Bode plot. .
UNIT V
Q. 1. What do mean by Compensation in the control system?
Q. 2 What are the type of Compensation.
Q. 3. Describe the lag, lead and lag-lead Compensating Networks.
Q. 4 Describe the effect of Phase lag Network on the control system.
Q,5.Describe the effect of Phase lead Network on the control system.
Q.6 Describe the effect of Phase lag-lead Network on the control system.
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
EX- 603 Switchgear & Protection
UNIT-I Fault Analysis
Fault Analysis per unit, representation and its advantages, faults in power systems (Symmetrical
& Unsymmetrical), Single line and equivalent impendence diagram representation of power
system components. Symmetrical components and its application to power systems, fault
analysis, Sequence networks and their interconnection for different types of faults, Effect of fault
impedance, Current limiting reactors, its location and application, Short circuit calculation.
Unit-II Protective Relays
Requirement of relays, Primary & backup protection, Desirable qualities of relays, Concept of
Pickup, reset & drop-off, Drop off/ Pickup ratio, inverse time & definite time charters tics,
Attracted armature, Balanced Beam, Induction disc, Induction cup, Moving coil & moving Iron,
Rectifier , Thermal, Bimetal directional relay, Frequency, DC, all or nothing relays. Pilot &
negative sequence, Over current, Over Voltage, Directional, Differential and Distance relays, R-
X diagram, Impedance mho & reactance relay.Introduction of static analog & digital relays,
Classification of static relays.
Unit-III Circuit Breakers
Elementary principle of arc quenching, recovery & re-striking voltage, arc quenching devices,
description and operation of Bulk oil, Minimum oil, Air break, Air blast, SF6, Vacuum circuit
breakers and DC circuit breakers, their comparative merits, LT Switch gear, HRC fuses, current
limiting reactor.& their design features, influence of reactors in CB ratings Testing of circuit
breaker, Description of a simple testing station, direct & indirect testing.
Unit-IV System Protection
Protection of Generators - Earth Fault, percentage, differential, Loss of excitation, Prime mover
failure, Over current, Turn to turn fault, Negative phase sequence, heating, Reverse power
protection schemes
Protection of Transformers
Internal & external fault protection, Differential, Earth fault, Over Current, Overheating,
Protection schemes, Protection of transmission lines, Over current, Distance and carrier current
protection schemes.
Unit-V
Surge Protection & insulation co-ordination
Switching surges, Phenomena of Lightning, over voltage due to lightning, Protection against
lightning, Lightning arrestors, selection of lightning arrestors, Surge absorbers and diverters, Rod
gap, Horn gap expulsion type & valve type lightning arrestors, solid resistance and reactance
earthing, Arc suppression coil, Earthing transformers, Earthwires, Earthing of appliances,
insulation co-ordination, Definitions determination of line insulation, insulation level of
substation equipment, co-ordination amongst items of substation equipment.
41
Lesson Plan
Department: Electrical &
Electronics
Session: Jan-2013
Name of Faculty: Priyank Nema Semester: Six
Subject: Switchgear and
protection
Sub Code: EX-603
Day Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Max.
Available
No. of
Period
Lect. Lecture to be Covered Reference book
with page no.
Date of completion
UNIT I
1 Fault Analysis per unit R
1
(9-11)
2 Per unit representation and its advantages R
1
(9-11)
3 Faults in power systems(Symmetrical &
unsymmetrical)
R
1
(308-325)
4 Single line and equivalent impendence diagram
Representation of power system components
R
1
(332-333)
5 Symmetrical components and its application to
power systems
R
1
(298-305)
6 Fault analysis R
1
(308-325)
8 Sequence networks and their interconnection for
different types of faults
R
1
(310-312)
9, Effect of fault impedance R
1
(325-329)
10 Current limiting reactors, its location and
application
R
1
(338-340)
11 Short circuit calculation R
1
(340)
12 Numerical problems and queries R
1
(342-353)
Unit II
13 Requirement of relays R
1
(358)
42
14 Primary & backup protection, Desirable qualities of
relays
R
1
(359-361)
15 Concept of Pickup, reset & drop-off, Drop off/
Pickup ratio, inverse time & definite time charters
tics
R
1
(359-361)
16 Attracted armature, Balanced Beam, Induction disc,
Induction cup,
R
1
(361-364)
17 Moving coil & moving Iron R
1
(361-364)
18 Rectifier , Thermal, Bimetal directional relay R
1
(366-369)
19 Frequency, DC, all or nothing relays R
1
(366-369)
20 Pilot & negative sequence, Over current, Over
Voltage
R
1
(364-366)
21 Directional, Differential and Distance relays R
1
(366-
374,377-381)
22 R-X diagram, Impedance mho & reactance relay R
1
(370-374)
23 Introduction of static analog & digital relays R
1
(428,453)
24 Classification of static relays R
1
(439-450)
UNIT III
25 Elementary principle of arc quenching R
1
(480)
26 Recovery & re-striking voltage, arc quenching
Devices
R
1
(482-485)
27 Description and operation of Bulk oil, Minimum oil R
1
(488-492)
28 Air break, Air blast, R
1
(494-496)
29 SF6, Vacuum circuit breakers and DC circuit
breakers, their comparative merits,
R
1
(496-502)
30 LT Switch gear, HRC fuses, R
1
(461)
31 Current limiting reactor & influence of reactors in
CB ratings
R
1
(338-340)
32 Testing of circuit breaker R
1
(505-507)
UNIT IV
33 Protection of Generators - Earth Fault, percentage,
differential
R
1
(392,397-
398)
34 Loss of excitation, Prime mover failure R
1
395
43
35 Over current, Turn to turn fault, R
1
(394-397)
36 Negative phase sequence, Heating, Reverse power
protection schemes
R
1
(393)
37 Internal & external fault protection R
1
(407-408)
38 Differential, Earth fault, Over Current R
1
(401-403)
39 Over Heating, Protection schemes, Protection of
transmission lines
R
2
(543-544)
40 Over current, Distance And carrier current
protection schemes.
R
1
(410-413)
References Title Author Publication
R1 Electrical power system CL Wadhwa, ,. New age
international
R2 principles of power system V.K. Mehta and
Rohit Mehta
S.Chand
List of Experiments:
44
1. Determination of drop out factor of an instantaneous over current relay.
2. Determination of operating characteristic of IDMT relay.
3. Determination of operating characteristic of differential relay.
4. Study and operation of gas actuated protective relay.
5. Study and operation of static over current relay.
6. Determination of transmission line parameters using MATLAB.
7. Analysis of power system faults (Symmetrical & Asymmetrical) using MATLAB.
8. Study of SF6 circuit breaker
9. Protectional simulation study of generator, Transformer, Feeder & Motor protection.
POINTS OF PONDERS
Unit-I
Fault Analysis
45
Symmetrical component: method of symmetrical coordinates applied to solution of poly phase
network showed that unbalanced system of n related phases can be represented in terms of n
systems of balance phases called symmetrical component.
1. Positive sequence
2. Negative sequence
3. Zero sequence
Sequence impedance: positive sequence impedance of a circuit is impedance offered by the
circuit to the flow of positive sequence current only. Negative sequence impedance of a circuit is
a impedance offered by the circuit to the flow of negative sequence currents only .zero sequence
impedance of a circuit is impedance offered by the circuit to the flow of zero sequence current
only.

Sequence network: single phase equivalent circuit composed of the impendences to current of
any one sequence only is called the sequence network for the particular sequence. Sequence
network includes any generated emf of the like sequence. Sequence networks carrying the
currents i
a1,
i
a2,
i
a0
are interconnected to represent various unbalanced condition .
Fault calculation:generally fault can be classified as
1. Shunt fault (short circuit):these faults are characterised by increase in current and fall in
voltage in the faulted phases and also frequency fall. shunt type faults are classified as
A. Line to ground fault B.Line to line fault C.Double line to line fault
These are unsymmetrical faults
46
2. Series faults(open conductor):
A. One open conductor
B. Two open conductor series faults
Line to ground fault : a short circuit between one line and ground, very often caused by
physical contact, for example due to lightning or other storm damage.

Line to Line fault: a short circuit between lines, caused by ionization of air, or when lines come
into physical contact, for example due to a broken insulator.

47

Double Line to ground fault: two lines come into contact with the ground (and each other), also
commonly due to storm damage.

Current limiting reactors: fault current is limited by the system reactance , which includes the
impedance of the generators , transformer , lines ,and other components of the system .
Location of reactor: current limiting reactors may be connected
1. in series with each generator
2. in series with each feeder
3. between bus bar sections

Unit II
Protective Relays
Requirement of relay: the detection of a fault and disconnection of a faulty section or apparatus
can be achieved by using relaying conjunction with circuit breaker.
Primary protection: Is the protection in which the fault occurring in a line will be cleared by
its own relay and circuit breaker. It serves as the first line of defense.
Back up protection: Is the second line of defense, which operates if the primary protection fails
to activate within a definite time delay
Desirable quantity of relay:
1. Selectivity
2. Speed
48
3. Sensitivity
4. Reliability
5. Simplicity
6. economy
Pickup level: the value of the actuating quantity (current or voltage) which is on the threshold
(border) above which relay operates.
Reset level:the value of current or voltage below which a relay opens its contacts and comes to
original position.
Operating time:the time which elapses between the instant when the actuating quantity exceed
the pickup value to the instant when the relay contacts closed.
Plug setting multiplier: it is the ratio of fault current in relay coil to the pickup current.
Time setting multiplier: a relay is generally provided with controlled to adjust the time of
operation this adjustment is known as time setting multiplier.
Inverse time & definite time charters tics: is one in which the operating time is approximately
inversely proportionally to the fault current near pick up value and become substantially
constant slightly above the pickup value of the relay.
Electromagnetic attraction relays: electromagnetic attraction relay operates by virtue of an
armature being attracted to the poles of an electromagnet such relays may be actuated by dc or ac
quantity. These are two types:
1. Attracted armature type relay
2. Balanced beam type
Induction relay: electromagnetic induction relays operate on the principle of induction motor
and are widely used for protective relaying purpose involving ac quantities these are generally
two types.
1. Induction disc
2. Induction cup
Over current relay: this relay operates when the value of current exceed pre specified value.
these are five types.
1. Instantaneous over current relay
2. Inverse time current relay
3. IDMT over current relay
4. Very inverse relay
5. Extremely inverse relay
Over voltage relay: this relay operate when the value of voltage exceed pre specified value.
49
Directional over current relay: it operates on the assumption that on occurrence of fault
direction of the current gets reversed and due to these directional unit classes contacts of over
current relay and circuit breaker is tripped.
Distance relay: there is another group of relays in which the operation is governed by the ratio
of the applied voltage to current in protected circuit such relay is called distance relay .these are
three types
1. Impedance relay
2. Reactance relay
3. Mho relay
Differential relay: the differential relay is one that operates when the vector difference of two or
more similar electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined value.
Static relay: the term static relay refers to a relay which incorporates solid states components
like transistors, diodes, etc .for the measurements or comparison of electrical quantities.

Unit III
Circuit Breakers
Arc phenomena: when electron generated , due to field emission or due to thermal emission,
collide with other gas molecule more electrons are generated and this sustains the arc increase
in mean free path facilitates ionization so if density of gas is less is less , more electrons will be
liberated . When temperature of gas reaches a very high value it increases chances of ionization
and at this stage thermal ionization becomes main source to maintain arc.
Recovery voltage: the power frequency r.m.s voltage that appears across the breaker contacts
after transient oscillations die out and final extinction of arc has resulted in all poles is called the
recovery voltage.
Restriking voltage: the resultant transient voltage which appears across the breaker contacts at
the instant of arc extinction is known as the restriking voltage.
Types of circuit breaker:
1. Oil circuit breakers
A. Bulk oil circuit breakers
B. Minimum oil circuit breakers
2. Air blast circuit breaker
3. Sulphur hexa fluoride circuit breaker
4. Vacuum circuit breaker
Oil circuit breaker: oil is an excellent quenching medium its dielectric strength is much higher
than air. Arc when produced in oil, decomposes the oil and loose its energy so oil is a good
cooling medium. Gas formed due to decomposition of oil from breaker space and new oil
replaces it .in this way dielectric strength of breaker gap is easily restored oil is a good insulator
also.
50
Minimum oil circuit breaker: the quantity of oil required to quench on arc is small (10%) as
compared to total oil in bulk oil circuit breaker.
Air blast circuit breaker: arc quenching in oil circuit breakers take place due to formation of
hydrogen, in place of hydrogen if air is used then it becomes air blast circuit breaker. Air is used
at high pressure.
Types of air blast circuit breaker:
1. Cross blast circuit breaker
2. Axial blast circuit breaker
Vacuum circuit breaker: mean free path of electrons and particles is order of few meters in a
vacuum of the order of 10
-4
to 10
-6
torr. in vacuum arc the natural atom, ions and electrons do not
come from the medium in which the arc is drawn but they are obtained from the electrodes
themselves by evaporating its surface material dielectric strength of vacuum is a thousand time
more than when ges is used as interrupting medium.
Sulphur hexa fluoride (SF
6
), circuit breaker: SF
6
has high electron affinity when a free
electron collides with SF
6
molecule it gets attached to it. When an electron gets attached to SF
6
molecule heavy negative ions are formed which cannot move with speed required to produce
ionization in the gas. In this way SF
6
absorbs electrons which may forms electron avalanche. SF
6
also has low gaseous viscosity which combined with high molecular Wight enable it to transfer
heat by convection more effectively. In this way SF
6
is very effective arc quenching medium.
DC circuit breaker: with the latest developments in HVDC transmission there would naturally
be the necessity of the HVDC circuit breaker. These are two types.
1. Light duty DC air break circuit breakers
2. High speed DC air break circuit breaker
HRC fuses: fuse is a simplest current interrupting device for protection from excessive
currents .as such, it is used for overload and short circuit protection in medium voltage (up to
33KV) and low voltage (up to 400V) installations. Modern high rupturing capacity fuses (HRC)
provide a reliable discriminations and accurate characteristics. In some respects HRC fuses are
superior to circuit breaker.
Testing of circuit breaker:
1. Short circuit tests:
A. Making capacity test
B. Breaking capacity test
C. Short time current teat
D. Operating duty test
2. Dielectric test:
A. Power frequency test:
I. One minute dry withstand test
51
II. One minute wet withstand test
B. Impulse voltage dry withstand test
3. Thermal test
4. Mechanical test
Unit IV
System Protection
Protection of alternator: some of the important faults which may occur on an alternator
1. Failure of prime mover
2. Failure of field
3. Over current
4. Over speed
5. Over voltage
6. Unbalanced loading
7. Stator winding faults
1. Failure of prime mover: when input to the prime mover fails the alternator runs as a
synchronous motor and draws some current from the supply system.
2. Failure of field: the chances of field failure of alternator are undoubtedly very rare. Even
if it does occurs, no immediate damage will be caused by permitting the alternator to run
without a field for a short period.
3. Over current: it occurs mainly due to partial breakdown of winding insulation or due to
over load on the supply system.
4. Over speed: the chief cause of over speed is the sudden loss of all or the major part of
load on the alternator.
5. Over voltage: the field excitation system of modern alternators is so designed that over
voltage conditions at normal running speeds can not occur.
52
6. Unbalanced loading: unbalanced loading means that there are different phase currents in
the alternator.
7. Stator winding faults: these faults occur mainly due to the insulation failure of the stator
winding. these faults are three types:
A. Fault between phase and ground
B. Fault between phases
C. Inter turn fault involving turns of the same phase winding
Differential protection of alternators: the most common system used for the protection of
stator winding faults employs circulating current principle. In this scheme of protection, currents
at the two ends of the protected section are compared. Under normal operating conditions, these
currents are equal but may become unequal on the occurrence of a fault in the protected section.
The difference of the currents under fault condition is arranged to pass through the operating coil
of the relay. The relay then closes its contacts to isolate protected section from the system. This
form of protection is also known as merz price circulating current scheme.
Balanced earth fault protection: it consists of three line current transformer s, one mounted in
each phase, having their secondarys connected in parallel with that of a single current
transformer in the conductor joining the star point of the of the alternator to earth . relay is
connected acrss the transformer secondarys. The protection against earth fault is limited to the
region between the neutral and the line current transformers.
Stators inter turn protection: merz price circulating current system protects against phase to
ground and phase to phase fault. It does not protect against turn to turn fault on the same phase
winding of the stator. For it we use stator inter turn protection.
Protection of transformer: transformer is need to protected against short circuit and
overheating. For transformer having low KVA rating over current relays are used but for
transformer with large MVA ratings differential protection is used.
Common transformer faults:
1. Open circuit
2. Overheating
3. Winding short circuit i.e. earth faults, phase to phase faults inter turn faults.
Buchholz relay: providing protection against all kinds of incipient faults i.e. slow developing
faults such as insulation failure of windings, core heating, fall of oil level due to leaky joints etc.
Earth fault relay: providing protection against earth fault only.
Over current relays: providing protection mainly against phase to phase faults and overloading.
Differential system: providing protection against both earth and phase faults.

53
Unit-V
Surge protection and insulation co-ordination
Switching surges: the over voltage produced on the power system due to switching operations
are known as switching surges.
Lightning: an electric discharge between cloud and earth, between clouds or between charge
centres of the same cloud is known as lightning.
Protection against lightning: the most commonly used devices for protection against lightning
surges are.
A. Earthing screen
B. Overhead ground wire
C. Lightning arresters or surge diverters
Lightning arrester: it is a protective device which conducts the high voltage surge on the power
system to the ground
Types of lightning arresters.
A. Rod gap arrester
B. Horn gap arrester
C. Multi gap arrester
D. Expulsion type arrester
E. Valve type lightning arrester
Surge absorber: it is a protective device which reduces the steepness of wave front of a surge
by absorbing surge energy.
Methods of neutral grounding: the methods commonly used for grounding the neutral point of
a 3-phase system are:
A. Solid grounding: when the neutral point of a 3-phase system is directly connected to earth
through a wire of negligible resistance and reactance ,it is called solid grounding
B. Resistance grounding: when the neutral point of a 3-phase system is connected to earth
through a resister, it is called resistance grounding.
C. Reactance grounding: in this system, a reactance is inserted between the neutral and
ground, the purpose of reactance is to limit the earth fault current.
D. Petertion-coil grounding: when the value of L of arc suppression coil (petertion coil) is
such that the fault current exactly balance the capacitive current,it is called resonant
grounding.
Earthing transformer: we sometimes have to create a neutral point on a 3-phase,3-
wire(e.g.delta connection etc.) to change it in to 3-phase 4-wire system this can be done by
means of a earthing transformer.
54
Earth wire: the conductor running parallel to the power conductors of the transmission line and
is placed at the top of the tower structure supporting. the ground wire serves the following
purpose-
A. It shields the power conductor from direct lightning stroke
B. Whenever a lightning stroke falls on the tower, the ground wires on both sides of the
tower provide parallel paths for the stroke therefore the effective impedance is reduced
and the tower top potential is relatively less.
C. There is electric coupling between the ground wire and the power conductors, thereby
the chances of insulation failure are reduced.
Insulation coordination: it means the correlation of the insulation of the various equipments in
a power system to the insulation of the protective devices used for the protection of those
equipments against overvoltage.
Insulation coordination between lines and substation equipment: either the line or the
substation is over insulated with normal insulation for the other thus there are two cases-
A. Lines normally insulated ,substation over insulated
B.Lines over insulated, substation normally insulated
55
Interview /Viva Questions
1. What are the functions of protective relays?
2. Give the consequences of short circuit.
3. Define protected zone.
4. What are unit system and non unit system?
5. What is primary protection?
6. What is back up protection?
7. Name the different kinds of over current relays.
8. Define energizing quantity.
9. Define operating time of a relay.
10. Define resetting time of a relay.
11. What are over and under current relays?
12. Mention any two applications of differential relay.
13. What is biased differential bus zone reduction?
14. What is the need of relay coordination?
15. Mention the short comings of Merz Price scheme of protection applied to a power transformer.
16. What are the various faults to which a turbo alternator is likely to be subjected?
What is an under frequency relay?
17. Define the term pilot with reference to power line protection.
18. Mention any two disadvantage of carrier current scheme for transmission line only.
19. What are the features of directional relay?
20. What are the causes of over speed and how alternators are protected from it?
21. What are the main types of stator winding faults?
22. Give the limitations of Merz Price protection.
23. What are the uses of Buchholzs relay?
24. What are the types of graded used in line of radial relay feeder?
25. What are the various faults that would affect an alternator?
26. Why neutral resistor is added between neutral and earth of an alternator?
27. What is the backup protection available for an alternator?
28. What are faults associated with an alternator?
29. What are the main safety devices available with transformer?
30. What are the problems arising in differential protection in power transformer and how are they
overcome?
31. What is REF relay?
32. What is over fluxing protection in transformer?
33. Why busbar protection is needed?
34. What are the merits of carrier current protection?
35. What are the errors in CT?
36. What is field suppression?
37. What are the causes of bus zone faults?
38. What are the problems in bus zone differential protection?
56
39. What is static relay?
40. What is power swing?
41. What is a programmable relay?
42. What is CPMC?
43. What are the advantages of static relay over electromagnetic relay?
44. What is resistance switching?
45. What do you mean by current chopping?
46. What are the methods of capacitive switching?
47. What is an arc?
48. Give the two methods of arc interruption?
49. What is restriking voltage?
50. What is meant by recovery voltage?
51. What is RRRV?
52. What is circuit breaker?
53. Write the classification of circuit breakers based on the medium used for arc extinction?
54. What is the main problem of the circuit breaker?
55. What are demerits of MOCB?
56. What are the advantages of oil as arc quenching medium?
57. What are the hazards imposed by oil when it is used as an arc quenching medium?
58. What are the advantages of MOCB over a bulk oil circuit breaker?
59. What are the disadvantages of MOCB over a bulk oil circuit breaker?
60. What are the types of air blast circuit breaker?
61. What are the advantages of air blast circuit breaker over oil circuit breaker?
62. What are the demerits of using oil as an arc quenching medium?
63. What is meant by electro negativity of SF6 gas?
64. What are the characteristic of SF6 gas?
65. Write the classifications of test conducted on circuit breakers.
66. What are the indirect methods of circuit breaker testing?
67. What are the advantages of synthetic testing methods?
68. How does the over voltage surge affect the power system?
69. What is pick up value?
70. Define target.
71. Define reach.
72. Define blocking.
73. Define a over current relay.
74. Define an under current relay?
75. Mention any 2 applications of differential relays.
76. Mention the various tests carried out in a circuit breaker at HV labs.
77. Mention the advantages of field tests.
78. State the disadvantages of field tests.
79. Define composite testing of a circuit breaker.
80. State the various types of earthing.
81. What are arcing grounds?
57
82. What is arc suppression coil?
83. State the significance of single line to ground fault.
84. What are symmetrical components?
85. State the three sequence components.
86. Define positive sequence component.
87. Define zero sequence components.
88. State the significance of double line fault.
89. State the various types of unsymmetrical faults.
90. Mention the withstanding current in our human body.
91. Define per unit value.
92. Mention the inductance value of the petersons coil.
93. Differentiate between a fuse and a circuit breaker.
94. How direct tests are conducted in circuit breakers?
95. What is dielectric test of a circuit breaker?
96. Define single line diagram.
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
Syllabus: EX604 Electronics Instrumentation
Unit-I
Introduction to CRO, Different parts of CRO, Its Block diagram, Electrostatic focusing, Electrostatic
deflection, post deflection acceleration, Screen for CRTs, Graticule, Vertical & Horizontal deflection
system, Time base circuit, Oscilloscope probes and transducers, Attenuators, Application of CROs,
Lissajous patterns, Special purpose CROs- Multi input, Dual trace, Dual beam, Sampling, Storage
(Analog & Digital) Oscilloscopes.
Unit-II A.C. Bridge Measurement
Sources and detectors, Use of Bridges for measurement of inductance, Capacitance & Q factor Maxwells
bridge, Maxwells inductance capacitance bridge, Hays bridge, Andersons bridge, Owen's Bridge, De-
sauty's Bridge, Schering Bridge, High Voltage Schering bridge, Measurement of relative permittivity,
Heaviside cambell's bridge, Weins bridge, Universal bridge, Sources of errors in Bridge circuit, Wagner's
Earthing device, Q meter and its applications and measurement methods.
Unit-III Transducers
Transducers definition and classification, mechanical devices as primary detectors, Characteristic &
choice of Transducers, Resistive inductive and capacitive transducers, strain gauge and gauge factor,
Thermistor, Thermo couples, LVDT, RVDT, Synchros, Piezo-Electric transducers, Magnet elastic and
magnetostrictive Hall effect transducers, Opto-electronic transducers such as photo voltaic, Photo
conductive, photo diode and photo conductive cells, Photo transistors, Photo optic transducers.
Introduction to analog & Digital data acquisition systems-Instrumentation systems used, Interfacing
transducers to electronic control & measuring systems Multiplexing - D/A multiplexing A-D
Multiplexing, Special encoders. Digital control description
Unit-IV
Signal Generators
Fixed & variable frequency AF oscillators, Sine wave generators, Standard signal generator, AF Sine and
Square wave generator Function generator, Square and pulse generator, Random noise generator, Sweep
generator, TV Sweep generator, Marker generator, Sweep- Marker generator, Wobblyscope, Video
pattern generator Vectroscope, Beat frequency oscillator
Wave analyser
Basic wave analyzer, Frequency selective wave analyzer, Heterodyne wave analyzer, Harmonic
distortion, analyzer, spectrum analyzer digital Fourier analyzer.
Unit-V Digital Instruments
Advantages of Digital instruments over analog instruments, resolution and sensitivity of Digital meters.,
Digital Voltmeter - Ramp type, Dual slope integration type, Integrating type, Successive approximation
type, Continuous balance DVM or Servo balancing potentiometer type VM. , compression of
Electronic & Digital Volt meter, Digital Multimeter, Digital frequency meter, Time period measurement,
High frequency measurement, Electronic counter, Digital tachometer, Digital PH meter, Digital phase
meter, Digital capacitance meter. Digital display system and indicators like CRT, LED, LCD, Nixies,
Electro luminescent, Incandescent, Electrophoretic image display, Liquid vapour display dotmatrix
display, Analog recorders, X-Y recorders. Instruments used in computercontrolled instrumentation RS
232C and IEEE 488, GPIB electric interface.
Lesson Plan
65
Department: Eletrical And
Electronics
Session: Jan-Jun2013
Name of Faculty: Ms Swati Khatri Semester: VI
Subject: Electronics
Instrumentation
Sub Code: EX-604
Time Schedule : Total expected period Extra Periods (if required)-
No. of
Period
Lect.
No.
Contents Reference
(page no.)
Date of
Completion
1. Electronic voltmeter and their advantages, VTVMs
Differential amplifier type
electronic voltmeter,
R2(4.1-4.6)
2. D.C. voltmeter using direct coupled amplifier, chopper
amplifier type of voltmeter
R2(4.16-4.22)
3.
Electronic voltmeters using rectifiers, True RMS
responding voltmeter
R2(4.22-4.27)
4.
Electronic multimeters, Differential
voltmeter,
R2(4.27-4.29)
(4.33-4.36)
5.
Vector voltmeter, Vector impedance meter R2(4.36-4.40)
measurement of power at radio frequency,
calorimeter, Bolometer
R1(724,719)
6.
Different parts of CRO, Its Block diagram R3(201-203)
7.
Electrostatic focusing, Electrostatic deflection R2(5.6-5.8)
8. post
deflection acceleration, Screen for CRTs,
R2(5.10-5.12)
9.
Graticule, Vertical & Horizontal deflection system
R2(5.15),R3(21
7,227)
10.
Time basecircuit, Oscilloscope probes and transducers
R2(5.18)R3(23
2)
11.
Attenuators, Application of CROs, Lissajous patterns R2(5.27,5.37)
12.
Special purpose CROs- Multi input, Dual trace R2(5.43-5.44)
13. Dual beam, Sampling Oscilloscopes.
R2(5.44,5.45)
14. Storage (Analog & Digital)
Oscilloscopes. R2(5.51,5.57)
15.
CLASS TEST
16.
Unit-II
66
17. Sources and detectors, Use of Bridges for measurement
of inductance,
Capacitance & Q factor
R2(6.2-6.3)
18. Maxwells bridge, Maxwells inductance capacitance
bridge, Hays bridge,
R2(6.8-6.10)
19.
Andersons bridge, Owen's Bridge
R2(6.12-6.13)
20.
De-sauty's Bridge, Schering Bridge
R2(6.17-6.19)
21. High Voltage Schering bridge,
Measurement of relative permittivity
R2(6.20-6.21)
22.
Heaviside cambell's bridge, Weins bridge
R2(6.25,6.28)
23. Universal bridge, Sources
of errors in Bridge circuit
R2(6.29-6.30)
24.
Wagner's Earthing device R2(6.32-6.33)
25. Q meter and its applications and measurement
methods. R2(4.46-4.47)
26.
Transducers definition and classification R2(7.1,7.3-7.9)
27. mechanical devices as primary detectors,
Characteristic & choice of Transducers
R2(7.17-7.19)
28.
Resistive inductive and capacitive transducers
R1(408,428,44
6)
29. strain gauge and
gauge factor
R2(7.36-7.37)
30.
Thermistor, Thermo couples R2(7.54,7.64)
31.
LVDT, RVDT,
R2(7.83,7.92)
32.
Synchros, Piezo-Electric transducers,
R2(7.92,7.118)
33. Magnet elastic and magnetostrictive Hall effect
transducers
R2(7.132,7.139
)
34. Opto-electronic transducers such as photo voltaic,Photo
conductive,
R2(7.141,7.144
)
35. photo diode and photo conductive cells R2(7.148-
7.149)
36. Photo transistors, Photo optic transducers R2(7.151,7.172
)
37.
CLASS TEST
38.
Unit-III
39. Fixed & variable frequency AF oscillators, Sine wave
generators,
R1(234-235)
R3(260-261)
40. Standard signal generator, AF Sine and Square wave
generator
R1(235-238)
67
41.
Function generator, Square and pulse generator R1(239-241)
42. Random noise generator, Sweep generator
R1(242-2432)
43. TV Sweep generator, Marker generator,
R1(244-246)
44. Sweep- Marker generator, Wobblyscope,
R1(247)
45.
Video pattern generator Vectroscope R1(247,253)
46. Beat frequency oscillator
Basic wave analyzer
R1(255,261)
47. Frequency selective wave analyzer, Heterodyne wave
analyzer,
R1(262-264)
48. Harmonic distortion, analyzer, spectrum analyzer digital
Fourier analyzer
R1(265-270)
49.
CLASS TEST
50.
Unit-IV
51. Advantages of Digital instruments over analog
instruments, resolution and sensitivity
of Digital meters
R2(8.17-8.18)
(8.38-8.39)
52.
Ramp type, Dual slope integration type R2(9.14,9.19)
53. Integrating type, Successive
approximation type
R2(9.15-9.18)
54. Continuous balance DVM or Servo balancing
potentiometer type VM
R2(8.56-8.57)
55.
Digital Multimeter, Digital frequency meter R2(9.22-9.25)
56.
Time period measurement, High frequency measurement R2(9.28-9.30)
57.
Electronic counter, Digital tachometer
R2(9.25)R1(16
5)
58. Digital PH meter, Digital phase meter, Digital
capacitance meter
R1(171-173)
59. Digital display system and indicators like CRT, LED,
LCD, Nixies,
R2(5.4,8.26-
8.29)
60. Electro luminescent, Incandescent,
Electrophoretic image display
R5(530-531)
61.
Liquid vapour display dot-matrix display
R5(531-532)
R2(8.25-8.26)
62. Analog recorders, Graphic
recorders, Strip chart recorders,
R4(1309-1310)
63. Galvanometer type recorders, Null recorders, single point
& multipoint recorders,
R4(1311-1315)
64. X-Y records, Ultraviolet recorders, Magnetic tape
recorders
R4(1315-1317)
65. Basic components of tape recorders, Methods of R4(1318-1320)
68
recording, Direct recording
66. Frequency modulated recording, Pulse duration
modulation recording, Digital tape recorders.
R41321-1325)
67.
CLASS TEST
68.
Unit-V
69. Instruments used in computer-controlled instrumentation
RS 232C and IEEE 488, GPIB electric interface
R4(1515-1517)
70. Introduction to analog & Digital data acquisition
systems-Instrumentation systems used, Interfacing
transducers to electronic control & measuring systems
R3(393-396)
71.
Multiplexing - D/A multiplexing A-D Multiplexing R3(405-407)
72.
Special encoders. Digital control description
R3(408-
409,429-430)
73. Microwave instruments Scattering parameters,
Transmission
and reflection parameters,
R6(6.23-6.25)
74. Network analyzer, Measurement uncertainty
measurement with scalar & vector
network,
R6(6.30-6.35)
75. Microwave power measurement- Sources & detectors,
Fiber optic power
measurement
R3(432-
433,439-441)
76. Stabilized calibrated light sources end to end
measurement of fiber losses, Optical time
domain reflectometry.
R3(442-444)
77.
CLASS TEST
R1 Electronics Instrumentation H. S. Kalsi Mc Gram hill
R2 Electronic Instrumentation A.K. Sawhney Dhanpat Rai and
Co
R3 Modern Electronic
Instrumentation and
Measurement Techniques
Albert D.Helfric
and Cooper
Pearson
R4 Electronic and Electrical
measurement and
instrumentation
A.K. Sawhney Dhanpat Rai and
Co
69
R5- Electronic measurement
and instrumentation
R.K.Rajput S.Chand and co
R6 Electronic Instrumentation, Vaibhavi A
sonetha:
Tech max
publication
List Of Experiments
1. Study of CRO.
2. Observing different waveform through function generator using CRO.
3. Measurement of capacitance using Schering Bridge.
4. Measurement of Inductance using Maxwells Bridge.
5. Measurement of Inductance of coil using Andersons Bridge.
6. Measurement of Pressure using Pressure gauge.
7. Measurement of Displacement by using LVDT
8. Measurement of Temperature by using Thermistor, RTD and Thermocouple.
9. Study of 4 bit analog to digital converter.
70
Points To Ponder
Unit-1
Chopper type voltmeter is an amplifier and voltmeter first,it amplifies D.C. signal and
then measure it.
Electronic multimeter is an instrument capable of measuring A.C and D.C. currents and
voltages.
Bolometer is used for measurement of low and medium power ranging from a few watt
to fraction of a watt.
Calorimeter is used for measurement of large amount of R.F. power.
CRO is a device that allows the amplitudes of electrical signals whether they be voltage,
current, power etc, to be displayed primarily as a function of time.
Cathode ray tube consist of:
a)electron gun assembly b) Deflection plates assembly c)Fluorescent scrren
d)Glass envelope e)Base
Graticule is ascale on transparent material that is fitted to the face of CRT for the purpose
of measurement.
Aquadag -graphite used to coat the interior surface of CRT to prevent secondary emission
electron.
To minimize loading, attenuator probes (e.g., 10X probes) are used.
Lissajous patterns are formed when two sine waves are applied simultaneously to the
vertical and horizontal deflecting plates of CRO.
Dual trace CRO is a special purpose CRO which is capable to display two waveform at a
time.It has two separate vertical input channels suitable for high frequency.
Dual beam CRO is a special purpose CRO which is capable to display two waveform at
a time.It has two separate vertical deflection plates suitable for low frequency.
Sampling oscilloscope is used to trace very fast signals.
71
Storage oscilloscope is capable of retaining the image on the screen for longer time
Unit-2
AC bridges are circuits which are often used to measure unknown impedances
(resistances, capacitances and inductances)
Maxwells bridge uses the principle that the positive phase angle of an inductive
impedance can be compensated by the negative phase angle of a capacitive
impedance when put in the opposite arm and the circuit is at resonance
Maxwells inductance capacitance bridge is preferred for coils with medium Q.
R1=R2R3/R4
L1=R2R3C4
Q=L1/R1
Where L1=unknown inductance
R1=effective resistance of inductor L1
R2,R3,R4=known non inductance resistance
C4=variable standard capacitor
Q=quality factor
Anderson bribge is used to measure coil with low Q.
hay's bridge is preferred for coils with a high Q,
Schering Bridge is used to measure capacitance and its power factor
Wagner's Earthing device is used to eliminate the effect of earth capacitance
Wien Bridge is used to measure either the equivalent series component or parallel
component and frequency of signals.
Q-meter It is used to measure electrical properties of coils and capacitors.
Transducer It is a device which convert the energy from one form to another.
The transducers may be classified as:- Electrical Transducers, Displacement
Transducers, Optoelectronic Transducers
Strain Guage It converts a mechanical displacement into change of resistance.
Active transducer do not need any external source of power supply for their
operation.
Passive transducer need external source of power supply for their operation.
LVDT translate linear motion into electrical signals.
RVDT is used to sense angular displacement .
RTD is used to measure electrical resistance in terms of temperature. It has
positive temperature coefficient.
Thermistor means thermally sensitive resistor.
It has negative temperature coefficient.
Thermo-couple is a temperature transducer which develops an emf which is
function of temoerature between two junctions.
Piezo electric tranducer uses piezo electric material which exhibit reversible effect
that is convert electrical to non-electrical energy or non-electrical energy to
electrical energy.
Photo conductive device it operate on the principle that whenever a material is
illuminated its resistance changes.
72
A Hall Effect transducer is based on the effect of magnetic fields on moving
charges.
Unit-3
Signal generator provides a variety of waveforms or signals for testing electronic circuits
at low powers.
Audio signal generator produce sine and square waves over the range of 20 Hz to 20
KHz.
Sine wave generator covers frequency range from few Hz to many GHz.
Standard signal generator is a radio frequency signal generator and produces known and
controllable voltages.
Function Generator has the capability of producing different types of waveforms as its
output signal ranging from 0.1Hz to 11 MHz.
The difference between pulse and square wave generator relates to the duty cycle.
Sweep generators are commonly used to test the frequency response of electronic
filter circuits.
A vectorscope is a special type of oscilloscope used in both audio and video applications
The reference signal used for the vectorscope's display is the color burst that is
transmitted before each line of video
A beat frequency oscillator or BFO , is a dedicated oscillator used to create an audio
frequency signal from Morse code transmissions to make them audible
By varying the BFO frequency around 44000 Hz, the listener can vary the output audio
frequency; this is useful to correct for small differences between the tuning of the
transmitter and the receiver,
Wave Analyser is used to measure the amplitude of each harmonic or fundamental
signals individually.
Frequency selective Wave Analyser is used for measurement in audio frequency range.
Hetrodyne Wave Analyser is used for measurement in radio frequency range.
Harmonic Distortion Analyser measure total harmonic power present in test wave.
Unit-4
73
The digital instruments are more accurate, error free, have more resolution draws
negligible power as compared to analog instruments.
D/A conversion involves translating digital information into analog information.
A/D convertor is used for changing analog signal to binary signals.
Resolution is the smallest change in the input signal (quantity under measurement),
which can be detected by the instrument
The sensitivity is the ratio of output signal (or response of the instrument) to a change of
input signal (or the quantity under measurement.)
A digital voltmeter comprises of a clock generator, a circuit that converts the voltage to
he measured into a pulse and a digital frequency counter
A multimeter can measure currents (amperes), voltage (volts) and resistance (ohms) and
is therefore also called an AVO (amperes-volts-ohms) meter.
An Electronic counter can measure Time interval, Time period, Frequency Ratio of two
frequencies etc.
A recorder records electrical and non electrical quantities as a function of time.
X-Y recorder gives a graphic record of the relationship between two variables.
An x-y recorder may have the sensitivity of 10 V/mm, slewing speed 1.5 m/s, a
frequency response of about 6 Hz in both the X and Y directions, and an accuracy
of + 0.2 per cent of full-scale.
Unit-5
RS-232 is used to interface between the micro-computer and serial pheripherals. This
describe the function of 25 signal and hand-shake pins for serial data transfer.
IEEE 488 standard is based on the transmission of 8 bit data bus. It is short distance
system for test equipment mounted in a rack within a room and not intended for
transmission over long distance or via telephone or other communication means.
Network Analyzer is an instrument to analyze the properties of electrical networks
specially those properties associated with the transmission and reflection of the electrical
signals known as S- parameters.
Scalar Network Analyzer is capable of measuring the magnitude of the response.
Vector Network Analyzer is capable of measuring the magnitude and phase of response.
74
Reflection co-efficient parameter is indicator of the line and load match.
Transmission co-efficient parameter determines the variation in phase or amplitude of
current or voltage along transmission line.
Scattering Paramerters- These are defined in terms of he signal which is applied to the
port and reflected back to the port.
The system used for data processing , data conversion , data transmission and data
storage us called Data Acquisition.
Optical Time Domain is used for measurement of fibre losses.
In OTDR a laser diode is used as a transmitter and it provides a narrow pulses of light
which is coupled to the fibre.
Optical light sources are
1) Wide band continuous spectra sources (Incandescent lamp).
2) Monochromatic in-coherent sources (LEDs)
3) Monochromatic coherent sources (LASER)
Interview/viva questions
1. Define accuracy, precision, sensitivity, linearity, resolution.
2. What is Hysteresis?
3. What are the different types of errors?
4. What are the type of D.C. voltmeters and A.C. voltmeters?
5. Which device is used for measurement of low and medium power?
6. Which device is used for measurement of high power?
7. What do you mean by measurement and measurement system and Instruments?
8. What is the function of measurement system?
9. What is electronic multimeter? What are the main elements of multimeter.
10. What are the different parts of CRO?
11. What is CRT?
12. What are the different parts of CRT?
13. How electron beam is produced.
14. Which method is used for focusing an electron beam?
75
15. What is deflection sensitivity of a CRT?
16. Define deflection factor of CRT.
17. What is graticule? What are the types of graticule?
18. What is aquadag.
19 Which material is coated on the CRT screen?
20 What is the function of time base generator in CRO?
21. What is oscilloscope probe? What are the different types of probes?
22. What is difference between Dual trace and Dual beam CRO?
23. What are the advantages of sampling, analog and digital storage oscilloscope?
24. Which bridge is used for measurement of inductance?
25. Which bridge is used for measurement of capacitance?
26. Which bridge is used for measurement of frequency?
27. What are the disadvantages of Maxwells bridge?
28. Define Quality factor of coil.
29. For which type of coil Maxwells bridge is used.
30 . What range of inductance can be measured by Maxwells bridge?
31. What range of inductance can be measured by Hays bridge?
32. What range of capacitance can be measured by Schering Bridge?
33. What range of Frequency can be measured by Wien Bridge?
34 What is the use of Wagner Earth detector?
35. What is Transducer? What are the different types of Transducers?
36. What do you mean by Strain Gauge? What is gauge factor?
37 What do you mean by displacement transducer?
38. Which material is used for photo voltaic cell?
39. What is the difference between RTD and Thermocouple and Thermister?
40. What is the principle of thermocouple?
41. Define wave analyzer? What are the types of wave analyzer?
42. Which range of frequency is measured by frequency selective wave analyzer?
43. What are the applications of wave analyzer?
44. What is harmonic distortion?
45. Define Spectrum analyzer. What are the types of Spectrum analyzer?
46. What is network analyzer?
47. What is signal generator?
48. What is function generator?
49. Define Duty cycle.
50. What is the function of sweep frequency generator?
51 What is the function of beat frequency oscillator?
52. What are the difference between wave analyzer and harmonic distortion analyzer?
53. What are the difference between wave analyzer and spectrum analyzer?
54. What are the difference between signal analyzer and function generator?
55. What are the difference between frequency selective analyzer and heterodyne wave analyzer?
56. What is analog Instrument?
57. What is digital Instrument?
58. Which methods are used for analog to digital conversion?
59.Define quantization.
60 What are the different types of D/A converter?
61. What is digital voltmeter?
76
62. What is the use of digital voltmeter?
77
78
79
80
81
82
EX- 605 Energy Conservation & Management

UNIT-I
General energy problem: Energy use patterns and scope for conservation.
Energy audit: Energy monitoring, Energy accounting and analysis, Auditing and targeting.
Energy conservation policy, Energy management & audit, Energy audit, Types of energy audit,
energy management (audit), qualities and function of energy managers, language of an energy
manager, Questionnaire, Check list for top management, Loss of energy in material flow, energy
performance, Maximizing system efficiency, Optimizing, input energy requirements, Energy
auditing instruments, Material load energy balance diagram.
Unit-II
Thermodynamics of Energy Conservation. Basic principle. Irreversibility and second law
efficiency analysis of systems. Primary energy sources, optimum use of prime-movers, energy
efficient house keeping, energy recovery in thermal systems, waste heat recovery techniques,
thermal insulation. Thermal energy audit in heating, ventilation and air conditioning.
Maintenance and Energy audit friction, lubrication and tribo-logical innovations. Predictive
and preventive maintenance.
Unit-III
Load curve analysis & load management DSM, Energy storage for power systems (Mechanical,
Thermal, Electrical & Magnetic) Restructuring of electric tariff from energy conservation
consideration, Economic analysis depreciation method, time value of money, Evaluation method
of projects, replacement analysis, special problems inflation risk analysis. Pay back period,
Energy economics, Cost Benefit Risk analysis, Pay back period.
UNIT-IV
Energy efficient electric drives, Energy efficient motors V.S.D. power factor improvement in
powersystem. Energy Conservation in transportation system especially in electric vehicle.
Energy flownetworks, Simulation & modeling, formulation & Objective & constraints,
alternative option, Matrix chart.
Unit-V
Energy conservation task before industry, Energy conservation equipments, Co-Generation,
Energy conservation process, Industry Sugar, Textiles, Cement Industry etc Electrical Energy
Conservation in building, heating and lighting. domestic gadgets
83
Department: Electrical & Electronics Session: Jan-June 2013
Name of Faculty: Mr.Avinash Bajpayee Semester: EX-VI
Subject: Energy Conservation &
Management
Sub Code: ECM-606
No. of
Period
Lect.
No.
Contents Reference
(page no.)
Date of
Completion
1
.
UNIT-I
Introduction
2
. General energy problem: Energy use patterns and
scope for conservation. R1(8-9)
3
. Energy audit: Energy monitoring, Energy accounting
and analysis R1(15-19)
4
.
C
Auditing and
targeting. Energy conservation policy,
R1(3-6),R2(3-
1)
5
. Energy management & audit, Energy audit,
Types of energy audit, energy management (audit) R2(3-2)
6
. qualities and function of energy
managers, R2(3-30)
7
.
language of an energy manager, Questionnaire, Check
list for top
management, R2(3-30)
8
.
Loss of energy in material flow, energy performance R2(3-11)
9
. Maximizing
system efficiency,, R1(23)
1
0
.
Optimizing, input energy requirements, Energy
auditing
instruments, R2(3-12)
1
1
.
Material load energy balance diagram. R2(3-12)
1
2
UNIT TEST
84
1
3
. UNIT II Introduction
1
4
.
Thermodynamics of Energy Conservation
R2(4-10)-(4-
15)
1
5
. Basic principle. Irreversibility and second
law efficiency analysis of systems.
R2(4-10)-(4-
15)
1
6
. Basic principle. Irreversibility and second
law efficiency analysis of systems. R2(4-21)
1
7
.
Primary energy sources, optimum use of primemovers R2(1-1)
1
8
. energy efficient house keeping, energy recovery in
thermal systems R2(6-6)-(6-9)
1
9
. waste
heat recovery techniques, R1(315)
2
0
.
thermal insulation R2(4-23)
2
1
. Thermal energy audit in heating,
ventilation and air conditioning. R2(4-24)
2
2
. Thermal energy audit in heating,
ventilation and air conditioning. R2(4-24)
2
3
. Maintenance and Energy audit friction, lubrication
and tribo-logical innovations.
R2(9-1),(9-7),
(13-1),(13-5)
2
4
.
Predictive and preventive maintenance
R2(13-6)-(13-
12)
85
2
5
.
UNIT TEST
2
6
.
UNIT III Introduction
2
7
.
Load curve analysis & load management DSM R2(12-4)-(12-8)
2
8
. Energy storage for power systems
(Mechanical, Thermal, Electrical & Magnetic) R2(12-29)
2
9
. Restructuring of electric tariff from
energy conservation consideration,
R2(12-18)-(12-
19)
3
0
. Economic analysis depreciation method time
value of money, R1(60) R2(12-4)
3
1
.
Evaluation method of projects, replacement analysis,
R2(12-23)
3
2
. Special problems inflation risk analysis. Pay back
period, Energy economics
R2(5-13)
R2(5-1)
3
3
. Cost Benefit
Risk analysis, Pay back period. R2(5-13)
3
4
.
UNIT TEST
3
5
.
UNIT IV Introduction
3
6
.
Energy efficient electric drives, R2(7-2)
3
7
.
Energy efficient motors V.S.D. power factor
improvement in power system.
R2(7-2)-(7-7)
86
3
8
. Energy efficient motors V.S.D. power factor
improvement in power system. R2(7-2)- (7-7)
3
9
. Energy Conservation in transportation system
especially in electric vehicle. R2(7-11)
4
0
. Energy flow networks, Simulation & modeling,
formulation R2(7-24)-(7-25)
4
1
. Objective & constraints, alternative option, Matrix
chart. R2(7-2)-(7-3)
4
2
.
Problems R2(7-25)-(7-28)
4
3
.
UNIT TEST
4
4
.
UNIT V Introduction
4
5
.
Energy conservation task before industry R2(6-12)
4
6
. Energy conservation equipments, Co-
Generation, R2(6-12)
4
7
.
Energy conservation process, Industry Sugar, Textiles,
Cement Industry
etc
R2(6-31)-(6-
32),(6-28)
4
8
. Electrical Energy Conservation in building, heating
and lighting R2(6-6)-(6-8)
4
9
.
domestic gadgets R2(6-8)
5
0
UNIT TEST
87
R1 Energy Conservation
And Management
WR
MURPHY& G
MCKAY
ELSEVIER
PUBLICATION
R2 Energy Conservation
And Management
SURESH KU.
SONI
&MANOJ
NAIR
SATYAPRAKASHAN
PUBLICATION
Points To Ponder
Unit-1 Energy audit:
Principle: When the object of study is an occupied building then reducing
energy consumption while maintaining or improving human comfort, health and safety are of
primary concern. Beyond simply identifying the sources of energy use, an energy audit seeks to
prioritize the energy uses according to the greatest to least cost effective opportunities for energy
saving.
The term energy audit is commonly used to describe a broad spectrum of energy
studies ranging from a quick walk-through of a facility to identify major problem areas to a
comprehensive analysis of the implications of alternative energy efficiency measures sufficient
to satisfy the financial criteria of sophisticated investors
Energy monitoring: is an energy efficiency technique based on the standard management axiom
stating that you cannot manage what you cannot measure. M&T techniques provide Energy
Managers with feedback on operating practices.
88
Energy conservation refers to reducing energy consumption through using less of an energy
service. Energy conservation differs from efficient energy use, which refers to using less energy
for a constant service. For example, driving less is an example of energy conservation.
Energy management includes planning and operation of energy-related production and
consumption units. Objectives are resource conservation, climate protection and cost savings,
while the users have permanent access to the energy they need. environmental management,
production management, logistics and It is connected closely to other established business
functions.
Operations and ensures that some level of organizational stability and an orderly recovery after a
disaster will prevail. Minimizing downtime and data loss is measured in terms of two concepts:
the Recovery Time Objective (RTO) and the Recovery Point Objective (RPO).
The recovery time objective is the time within which a business process must be restored, after a
major incident (MI) has occurred, in order to avoid unacceptable consequences associated with a
Unit-2 Thermodynamics of Energy Conservation:
The law of conservation of energy,
First formulated in the nineteenth century, is a law of physics. It states that the total amount of
energy in an isolated system remains constant over time. The total energy is said to be conserved
over time. For an isolated system, this law means that energy can change its location within the
system, and that it can change form within the system, for instance chemical can become kinetic
energy, but that energy can be neither created nor destroyed.
First law of thermodynamics: For a closed thermodynamic system, the first law of
thermodynamics may be stated as:
89
Where is the amount of energy added to the system by a heating process, is the amount
of energy lost by the system due to work done by the system on its surroundings and is the
change in the internal energy of the system.
Second law of thermodynamics: Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder location
to a hotter location.
The second law of thermodynamics is an expression of the universal principle of dissipation of
kinetic and potential energy observable in nature. The second law is an observation of the fact
that over time, differences in temperature, pressure, and chemical potential tend to even out in a
physical system that is isolated from the outside world. Entropy is a measure of how much this
process has progressed. The entropy of an isolated system that is not in equilibrium tends to
increase over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium.
Primary energy:- is an energy form found in nature that has not been subjected to any
conversion or transformation process. It is energy contained in raw fuels, and other
forms of energy received as input to a system. Primary energy can be non-
renewable or renewable.

sources

Primary energy sources should not be confused with the energy systems (or conversion
processes) through which they are converted into energy carriers
.
Primary energy sources converted
into
Energy carriers
(main)
within the Energy
systems
Non-
renewable
source
Fossil
fuels
Oil (or crude
oil)
Fuel oil Oil refinery
Coal or natural
gas
Enthalpy,
mechanical
work or
electricity
Fossil fuel
power station
Mineral
fuels
Natural uranium Electricity
Nuclear power
plant
(thermonuclear
fission)
Renewable
sources
Solar energy
Electricity
Photovoltaic
power plant
(see also Solar
power)
Enthalpy Solar power
tower, solar
90
furnace (see
also Solar
thermal
energy)
Wind energy
Mechanical
work or
electricity
Wind farm
(see also Wind
power)
Falling and
flowing water,
tidal energy
Mechanical
work or
electricity
Hydropower
plant, wave
farm, tidal
power station
Biomass
sources
Enthalpy or
electricity
Biomass power
station
Geothermal
energy
Enthalpy or
electricity
Geothermal
power station
Energy recovery includes any technique or method of minimizing the input of energy to an
overall system by the exchange of energy from one sub-system of the overall system with
another. The energy can be in any form in either subsystem, but most energy recovery systems
exchange thermal energy in either sensible or latent form.
Principle
A common utilization of this principle is in systems which have an exhaust stream or waste
stream which is transferred from the system to its surroundings. Some of the energy in that flow
of material (often gaseous or liquid) may be transferred to the make-up or input material flow.
This input mass flow often comes from the system's surroundings, which, being at ambient
conditions, are at a lower temperature than the waste stream. This temperature differential allows
heat transfer and thus energy transfer, or in this case, recovery. Thermal energy is often
recovered from liquid or gaseous waste streams to fresh make-up air and water intakes in
buildings, such as for the HVAC systems, or process systems.
Thermal insulation is the reduction of heat transfer (the transfer of thermal energy between
objects of differing temperature) between objects in thermal contact or in range of radiative
influence. Thermal insulation can be achieved with specially engineered methods or processes,
as well as with suitable object shapes and materials.
Preventive maintenance (PM) has the following meanings:
1. The care and servicing by personnel for the purpose of maintaining equipment and
facilities in satisfactory operating condition by providing for systematic inspection,
detection, and correction of incipient failures either before they occur or before they
develop into major defects.
2. Maintenance , including tests, measurements, adjustments, and parts replacement,
performed specifically to prevent faults from occurring.
91
Difference Between Preventive and Predictive Maintenance
Predictive maintenance tends to include direct measurement of the item. Example, an infrared
picture of a circuit board to determine hot spots while Preventive Maintenance includes the
evaluation of particles in suspension in a lubricant, sound and vibration analysis of a machine.
Unit-3
Energy storage is accomplished by devices or physical media that store energy to
perform useful operation at a later time. A device that stores energy is sometimes called an
accumulator.
All forms of energy are either potential energy (e.g. Chemical, gravitational, electrical energy,
etc.) or kinetic energy (e.g. thermal energy). A wind-up clock stores potential energy (in this case
mechanical, in the spring tension), a battery stores readily convertible chemical energy to operate
a mobile phone, and a hydroelectric dam stores energy in a reservoir as gravitational potential
energy. Ice storage tanks store ice (thermal energy) at night to meet peak demand for cooling.
Fossil fuels such as coal and gasoline store ancient energy derived from sunlight by organisms
that later died, became buried and over time were then converted into these fuels. Even food
(which is made by the same process as fossil fuels) is a form of energy stored in chemical form.
Modern era developments
Storing energy allows humans to balance the supply and demand of energy. Energy storage
systems in commercial use today can be broadly categorized as mechanical, electrical, chemical,
biological and thermal.
Advanced systems
Electrochemical devices called fuel cells were invented about the same time as the battery in the
19th Century. However, for many reasons, fuel cells were not well-developed until the advent of
manned spaceflight (such as the Gemini Program in the U.S.) when lightweight, non-thermal
(and therefore efficient) sources of electricity were required in spacecraft. Fuel cell development
has increased in recent years due to an attempt to increase conversion efficiency of chemical
energy stored in hydrocarbon or hydrogen fuels into electricity.
The time value of money is the value of money figuring in a given amount of interest earned
over a given amount of time. The time value of money is the central concept in finance theory.
Some standard calculations based on the time value of money are:
Present value:- The current worth of a future sum of money or stream of cash flows
given a specified rate of return. Future cash flows are discounted at the discount rate, and
the higher the discount rate, the lower the present value of the future cash flows.
Determining the appropriate discount rate is the key to properly valuing future cash
flows, whether they be earnings or obligations.
92
Present value of an annuity An annuity is a series of equal payments or receipts that
occur at evenly spaced intervals. Leases and rental payments are examples. The payments
or receipts occur at the end of each period for an ordinary annuity while they occur at the
beginning of each period for an annuity due.
Present value of a perpetuity is an infinite and constant stream of identical cash flows.
Future value is the value of an asset or cash at a specified date in the future that is
equivalent in value to a specified sum today.
Many studies have been done to estimate the cycle times, decay times, and capacities of each of
these processors. Variables that affect these can include subject age, aptitudes, ability, and the
surrounding environment. For a younger adult, reasonable estimates are:
93
Parameter Mean Range
Eye movement time 230 ms 70-700 ms
Decay half-life of visual image storage 200 ms 90-1000 ms
Perceptual processor cycle time 100 ms 50-200 ms
Cognitive processor cycle time 70 ms 25-170 ms
Motor processor cycle time 70 ms 30-100 ms
Effective working memory capacity 2 items 2-3 items
Long-term memory is believed to have an infinite capacity and decay time.
Energy economics is a broad scientific subject area which includes topics related to supply and
use of energy in societies. Due to diversity of issues and methods applied and shared with a
number of academic disciplines, energy economics does not present itself as a self-contained
academic discipline, but it is an applied subdiscipline of economics. From the list of main topics
of economics, some relate strongly to energy economics:
Costbenefit analysis (CBA), sometimes called benefitcost analysis (BCA), is a systematic
process for calculating and comparing benefits and costs of a project, decision or overnmengt
policy (hereafter, "project"). CBA has two purposes:
1. To determine if it is a sound investment/decision (justification/feasibility),
2. To provide a basis for comparing projects. It involves comparing the total expected cost
of each option against the total expected benefits, to see whether the benefits outweigh
the costs, and by how much.
[1]
Process
The following is a list of steps that comprise a generic cost-benefit analysis.
1. List alternative projects/programs.
2. List stakeholders.
3. Select measurement(s) and measure all cost/benefit elements.
4. Predict outcome of cost and benefits over relevant time period.
5. Convert all costs and benefits into a common currency.
6. Apply discount rate.
7. Calculate net present value of project options.
8. Perform sensitivity analysis.
9. Adopt recommended choice.
Unit-4 Energy efficient electric drives:
The high electrical conductivity of copper is an important design factor that helps to improve the
energy efficiency of motors. This is important because motors and motor-driven systems are very
94
significant consumers of electricity, accounting for 43%-46% of all global electricity
consumption and 69% of all electricity used by industry.
Inefficient electric motors waste electrical energy. Since most electricity is generated from fossil-
fueled power plants, motors and motor-driven systems are indirect contributors to greenhouse
gas emissions produced by these plants. Hence, there are compelling economic and
environmental reasons to increase the use of energy efficient motors.
Unit-5
Efficient energy , sometimes simply called energy efficiency, is the goal of efforts to reduce the
amount of energy required to provide products and services. For example, insulating a home
allows a building to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve and maintain a comfortable
temperature. Installing fluorescent lights or natural skylights reduces the amount of energy
required to attain the same level of illumination compared with using traditional incandescent
light bulbs. Compact fluorescent lights use one-third the energy of incandescent lights and may
last 6 to 10 times longer. Improvements in energy efficiency are most often achieved by adopting
a more efficient technology or production process.
Energy efficiency and renewable energy are said to be the twin pillars of sustainable energy
policy. In many countries energy efficiency is also seen to have a national security benefit
because it can be used to reduce the level of energy imports from foreign countries and may slow
down the rate at which domestic energy resources are depleted.
Appliances
See also: green computing, solar lamp, energy saving lamp, and power usage effectiveness
95
Modern appliances, such as refrigerators, freezers, ovens, stoves, dishwashers, and clothes
washers and dryers, use significantly less energy than older appliances. Installing a clothesline
will significantly reduce your energy consumption as your dryer will be used less
Cogeneration (also combined heat and power, CHP) is the use of a heat engine or a power
station to simultaneously generate both electricity and useful heat
Cogeneration was practiced in some of the earliest installations of electrical generation. Before
central stations distributed power, industries generating their own power used exhaust steam for
process heating. Large office and apartment buildings, hotels and stores commonly generated
their own power and used waste steam for building heat. Because of the economies and high cost
of early purchased power, these combined heat and power operations continued for many years
after utility electricity became available. Cogeneration is still common in pulp and paper mills,
refineries and chemical plants.
Effective energy-efficient building design can include the use of low cost Passive Infra Reds
(PIRs) to switch-off lighting when areas are unnoccupied such as toilets, corridors or even office
areas out-of-hours. In addition, lux levels can be monitored using daylight sensors linked to the
building's lighting scheme to switch on/off or dim the lighting to pre-defined levels to take into
account the natural light and thus reduce consumption. Building Management Systems (BMS)
96
link all of this together in one centralised computer to control the whole building's lighting and
power requirements.
Industry
Industry uses a large amount of energy to power a diverse range of manufacturing and resource
extraction processes. Many industrial processes require large amounts of heat and mechanical
power, most of which is delivered as natural gas, petroleum fuels and as electricity. In addition
some industries generate fuel from waste products that can be used to provide additional energy.
Because industrial processes are so diverse it is impossible to describe the multitude of possible
opportunities for energy efficiency in industry. Many depend on the specific technologies and
processes in use at each industrial facility. There are, however, a number of processes and energy
services that are widely used in many industries.
Various industries generate steam and electricity for subsequent use within their facilities. When
electricity is generated, the heat that is produced as a by-product can be captured and used for
process steam, heating or other industrial purposes. Conventional electricity generation is about
30% efficient, whereas combined heat and power (also called co-generation) converts up to 90
percent of the fuel into usable energy.
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by energy audit and energy monitoring.
2. What are the requirements of energy conservation.
3. What do you think should be done about global warming?
4. The problem with focusing on natural gas is that it becomes a crutch fuel and we get stuck with
that interim solution permanently.
5. Thats certainly a popular opinion. How easy do you think it really is to simply use less
you say?
6. So you think that improving gas mileage in our SUVs can offset the industrialization of
the third world?
7. Tell me about an energy stock that you think is a good investment.
8. The company is considering development of some oil deposits off the coast of western
Africa. Through our agreement with the local government, we have access to three
97
separate oil fields, but we can only pick one. How do we value the fields and decide
which one to pursue?
9. We have a new fuel cell design ready for manufacturing, but as you know fuel cells
arent yet in widespread use. Tell me how you would think about taking our product to
market.
10. How would you structure the analysis for a power plant investment?
11. What would you say are the major technical skills needed for this position?
12. Briefly discusses the basic concepts of a national economy with specific reference
to some particular aspects of energy economics and gross national product
13. Define and distinguish the terminologies Energy Conservation and Energy Savings
14. Which kind of actions/means should we adopt to ensure efficiency Conservation of
energy resources?
15. Planning leads to proper management practice; with an aid of illustrative block
Diagram explains the variables, parameters and other determinants of energy
Planning.
16. Explain how a mathematical expression derived for a decision making of a
Particular energy management system within a micro-economic level. Also
Discuss some of the side factors which may play important role in the decision
Making but may not be incorporated in the expression.
17. Within a national economy, energy policy planning is aimed at a guarantee of the
Energy supply. List and discuss three major elements involved or which are
Commonly evaluated in energy policy planning.
18. There are popular statements which state that Energy storage is often mentioned
When stressing the point of energy savings. Costs have nevertheless to be
Evaluated. A general conclusion on the economic advantages of storage systems
Cannot be drawn. Discuss these statements from your own point of view.
19. Energy-dependent countries are becoming increasingly aware of the importance
Of conversion, conservation and development of new energy sources; hence
Energy sources in the world are exploited with the primary consideration given to
three Es by engineers. Explain these three Es which are becoming popular
in the engineering field and their proper balancing.
98
20. Energy saving measures may be in terms fuel substitution, waste-heat recovery
and process modification. Explain what is involved in each of these measures.
21. Use an iterative block diagram to discuss what a general management system
entails with specific reference to energy management.
22. Discuss the need and approaches to energy marketing and investment
23. List and explain at-least four major determinants of energy supply and demand
planning which should be considered whether an investigation is to be supply or
demand-oriented for a national energy policy in particular
24. Explain what you understand by energy storage systems and three objectives
energy storage is geared to fulfill.
25. In your understanding illustrate how you as an engineer in-charge in an energy
generating institution would go about planning for the power distribution to a
local community. Your discussion should focus on such factors as the energy
reserve/source, handling, upgrading, storage, preparation, etc.
26. Explain the following terminologies in-terms of Energy Economics:
i) Operational costs
ii) Capital cost
27. How are the following approaches carried out in energy assessment:
i) Energy surveys
ii) Energy auditing
iii) Conservation opportunities
28. Explain in detail the opportunities for energy conservation in India cement industry
/paper industry /sugar industry ?
29. Why boiler efficiency by indirect method is more useful than direct method?
30. Explain the depth performance assessment method for steam strap ?
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