The Obama Logo Was That Brilliant

The Obama logo was that brilliant, iconic O with the hints of flags, waving fields and a rising
sun Morning in America reduced to a single, eye-catching image.

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Ten Life-Saving Rules for Campaign Managers

By Ron Faucheux The job of a campaign manager is a tough one. In modern, complex campaigns, managers have to keep track of countless moving parts, handle a myriad of details, and always keep an eye on the big picture. They need the trust of the candidate and the cooperation of every component of the campaign. Here are my 10 rules for campaign managers. They should be followed conscientiously. 1. Listen to the candidate. Really listen. Campaign managers think they are experts at running campaigns. Many of them truly are. But that doesnt mean they know more than their candidates about every issue. Smart managers should never discount the knowledge and instincts of a candidate, especially an experienced candidate who has won tough elections. Some managers are biased against tactical or strategic suggestions from candidates. They resent the intrusion, dislike being watched, hate the second-guessing, and tend to chalk up most of their bosses proposals to ego or exhaustion. But thats a mistake. Listen to the candidate, even if what is said appears to be wrong at first blush. Often, when you dig deeper, youll find unexpected gems of excellent advice. 2. Listen to real voters, not just people in politics. It is easy for experienced managers to think they know what voters want without ever talking to them. But a good campaign manager doesnt isolate himself or herself from whats going on in the constituency. They get out, meet people, talk to them, and listen to their ideas and gauge changing moods. Polls are great. Targeting studies are wonderful. But none of it matters if the voters are trying to say something that nobody hears. This can extend to relatives and friends of the candidate. People with little or no political experience who are close to candidates often find fault with how a campaign is being run and have a profusion of ideas that could fix things. While some of their ideas may be foolish or unworkable, some of them may be quite good. These people have the candidates best interests at heart and can provide a fresh perspective from outside the clutter of campaign headquarters outside, where the voters live. 3. Budget backwards. Do not let your last campaign constrict your thinking about the current one. Think fresh. And when it comes to budgeting, think priority. There are a million good things you can fund in a campaign that are
irrelevant to the ultimate goal of winning. Wisdom is knowing whats important and whats not. So is good campaign budgeting. Figure out what you absolutely need to do to win, and budget it. If something doesnt contribute to the goal of winning, cut it out. Dont let conventional wisdom or political customs distract you from taking care of important business even if it means saying no to a lot of spending initiatives small and large that well-meaning supporters propose. Theres a straight line to Election Day and it runs right through your budget. 4. Set regular meetings and mandate attendance. The campaign manager needs regular contact with the finance team, the political and field staff, and the communications operation. Set regular meetings and conference calls be they daily, weekly, or monthly. And then enforce the schedule. People in campaigns paid staff, consultants, and volunteers need to know its not only impolite, but inappropriate to miss a meeting. It is a managers job to lay out a reasonable schedule and to demand everybody follows it. 5. Tell your candidate the truth. This isnt always easy, especially if its bad news. Occasionally, its the toughest thing a campaign manager must do. But do it nonetheless. This doesnt mean you want to run your candidates spirits down with endless, debilitating assessments. But it does mean you need to fill the objectivity gap that exists in all campaigns. Thats what good management is all about. It is very hard for even the smartest candidates to maintain objectivity in the line of fire. Thats why they need strong, fearless managers to keep their campaigns on track especially when every other external and internal force is pushing to derail it. 6. Question faulty assumptions early. A candidate who assumes he or she cant lose needs to be challenged. A strategy team that assumes the opposition will never get off the ground needs to be challenged. A campaign staff that assumes voters will connect the dots on their own, without the help of disciplined message delivery, needs to be challenged. Its the fundamentals that trip campaigns up. A big, wrong assumption is made, it takes root, and then it undermines everything. The more fundamental an assumption, the harder it is to challenge. A campaign manager must be ready to challenge misguided assumptions before they produce bad decisions and cause major mistakes. 7. Work hard but dont kill yourself. Campaign management is a 24/7 obsession. Campaign managers must not allow themselves to become physically exhausted or mentally stale. Not only does that take a toll on the managers well being, it also takes a toll on the campaigns performance. Managers should take time off a morning break, a long lunch, a peaceful walk, a weekend to relax. Managers need to watch their diets (cold pizza kills), get enough sleep, refrain from too much alcohol, and get medical attention if something feels wrong. Managers in their 20s and 30s must understand that the physical wear and tear of a campaign can last a lifetime. 8. Scrutinize
everything. Nothing should leave campaign headquarters unless its scrutinized. In larger campaigns, a research director should review all campaign material, letters, mass e-mails, talking points, speech outlines, press releases, ads, and telephone scripts for accuracy. A campaign strategist should also look over everything for political considerations. In campaigns, the pace is fast. Small mistakes are amplified through blogs and picked up by the media. Extra care must be taken in the public messages you convey and materials you produce. Its a campaign managers job to set up a vetting process and insist upon its daily impl ementation. 9. Watch the money. Campaigns are ad hoc organizations that are cobbled together for limited durations. Things move fast. Income is uncertain. Everything bleeds cash. Money management is critical and the experienced campaign manager will watch the money. As J. Paul Getty once said, Look after the pennies, the dollars will look after themselves. That applies to all campaigns, even the well funded ones. 10. Pull the trigger. Some campaigns meet and discuss, discuss and meet. Decisions are delayed and delayed. Skilled campaign managers do not let endless analysis paralyze decision-making. No matter how many polls youve taken, experts you have consulted, or cautions that have been raised, campaign managers need to reach through the fog and pull the trigger. When timing is everything, it is inaction that can be fatal. Napoleon once said, I may lose battles, but I dont lose minutes. Thats good advice for campaign managers. Each of these 10 rules is easy to overlook in the heat of battle, thus discipline and vigilance is recommended. Ron Faucheux is author of Running for Office and editor of Winning Elections, popular books on political campaigning. A political strategist and analyst, Dr. Faucheux teaches at George Washington Universitys Graduate School of Political Management. Ron can be reached at Click here to contact this Author Learn From The Experts Articles
Is colour important to your business and brand?
What's in a Colour?
Colour can be descriptive. Colour can affect the way we think. Colour can affect the way we feel. A recent study conducted by Dr. Gitte Lindgaard of Carleton University in Ottawa has shown that the public in general takes only 50 milliseconds to make a judgement about your website. This makes the importance of feel in your web design a much more important feature. No matter how good your website copyrighting is if the visitor gets the wrong feel in that first 50 milliseconds, they wont stay around long enough to read it. Based on this the colours that you choose for your online branding can be the difference between attracting or repelling a potential customer.
Oranges and Yellows

Bright colours such as oranges or yellows are often seen as friendly and fun, great for younger audiences. On the flip side, these colours can be viewed as less professional and make your site look like it lacks conviction.
Blues
Colours like navy blues can be seen as professional and serious. Colours such as these are often used on websites that represent law or finance. The negatives of this colour include making your brand feel stuffy or without humour.
Reds
Reds represent feelings of heat and strength. They portray confidence and power. Unfortunately, reds can also describe anger, which can be intimidating to some visitors.
Greens
Greens embody nature and health. It is often used when referring to the outdoors or fresh foods. Some people link this colour to green political statements, which can be good or bad depending on your point of view but means that it is often absent from corporate sites.
Light or Dark
Whether your colours are light or dark will also have an effect on the perception of your site.
Light colours and large areas of white are used on websites to give a site an easy, free feel. It can make the content feel easy to read and can give an impression of health and beauty. Dark colours and black can add a dramatic feel to a website. Dark colours can give your images more punch. Large blocks of text on dark colours can be harder to read but can give a sense of gravity to your words. By combining these colours and of course the millions of other colour combinations you can help your visitors make their initial decision about your business. There are no hard and fast rules. There are no right and wrong colours. But colours do influence a visitors experience and therefore will have an impact on your bottom line. So when looking at your web design, make sure you consider colour. Take some time to determine how you want your visitors to feel when they enter your home page. Then decide do these colours describe that feeling?
This is the html version of the file http://www.american.edu/soc/communication/upload/Carissa-Nee.pdf. Google automatically generates html versions of documents as we crawl the web. Page 1
What Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective: Best Practices and a Semiotic Analysis of the Logos of Barack Obama, George W. Bush and John McCain By: Carissa Mirasol Nee A Capstone Project Presented to The Faculty of the School of Communication In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Masters of Arts in Public Communication Supervisor: Professor Lauren Feldman, Ph.D. April 21, 2011
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Nee What Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective
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TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT
4 INTRODUCTION 5 BACKGROUND 9 THE LOGO AS A VISUALIZATION TOOL 9 DEFINING A LOGO VS. A BRAND 9 LITERATURE REVIEW 10 DEFINING THE ROLE OF THE TARGET AUDIENCE: THE VOTING PUBLIC 10 EFFECTIVE LOGO DESIGN PRINCIPLES 14 BEST PRACTICE #1: CREATE OR SELECT A MODERATELY ELABORATE LOGO 15 BEST PRACTICE #2: CREATE A LOGO WITH A NATURAL IMAGE 18 BEST PRACTICE #3: CREATE A LOGO WITH A HIGH LEVEL OF FAMILIAR MEANING 19 EMOTION IN LOGO INTERPRETATION 20 THEORETICAL APPLICATION: COLOR THEORY 22 THEORETICAL APPLICATION: APPRAISAL THEORY 24 THEORETICAL APPLICATION: AFFECTIVE INTELLIGENCE 25 LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY 26 CASE PROFILE 28 CHOICE OF LOGOS 28 SEMIOTIC ANALYSIS 29
DENOTATIVE VERSUS CONNOTATIVE RELATIONSHIPS
30 CASE ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION 35 DENOTATIONAL INVENTORY 35 HIGHER LEVELS OF SIGNIFICATION (CONNOTATIVE INVENTORY) 35 ELEMENT #1: TEXT 36 ELEMENT #2: INCLUSION OF A URL 39 ELEMENT #3: THE LOGO IMAGE 40 OBAMA/BIDEN LOGO IMAGE 40 BUSH/CHENEY LOGO IMAGE 44 MCCAIN/PALIN LOGO IMAGE 47 CONCLUSION 52 REFERENCES 54 APPENDIX 58 APPENDIX A: DENOTATIONAL INVENTORY 58 APPENDIX B: CONNOTATIVE INVENTORY OF THE OBAMA/BIDEN LOGO 59
APPENDIX C: CONNOTATIVE INVENTORY OF THE BUSH/CHENEY LOGO 60 APPENDIX D: CONNOTATIVE INVENTORY OF THE MCCAIN/PALIN LOGO 61
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4 ABSTRACT Obamas 2008 election campaign marketing team seized an opportunity to do something not previously done by past presidential candidates they made Obama a brand and created a strong logo as the face of that brand. As a result of this strategy, the marketing team became the recipient of Advertising Ages 2008 Marketer of the Year award. The U.S. 2008 presidential election demonstrated how visual communications could play a pivotal role in the promotion of a candidate and development of an effective campaign strategy. The capstones literature review summarizes extensive research and extracts what visual elements and strategies contribute to a well-designed logo. Although a logo design can be aesthetically pleasing and offers a certain appeal, it may not necessarily communicate the right or intended message about a presidential candidate in an effective manner. This capstone provides a framework of best practices in logo design and how they can be applied in creating political campaign logos that could positively impact the outcome of an election. From the results of the semiotic analysis of three political campaign logos: Obama, George W. Bush and John McCain, this capstone offers a clearer understanding of the process on how the public or target audience derives meaning from or interprets a logo image. The results shed insight into the possible meanings and interpretations of each logo and can serve as basis in evaluating their effectiveness.
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5 INTRODUCTION Written and oral communications are important tools in conveying thoughts, ideas and feelings to a target audience. Along with these, however, is the power of visual communication to
strengthen and go beyond what one reads and hears. Just like literacy of the written and spoken language, the visual component of communication serves as a mode of discourse and is an instrument that provides clarity through the use of tangible elements. Visual design and imagery are often equated with art, decoration and creative presentation as well as entertainment; however, its place in the realm of effective public communication cannot afford to be overlooked. A visual image not only fortifies what the audience reads and hears, but also titillates and delights them. It is a persuasive vehicle that can make educating or creating an experience easier as the audience absorbs the visual information presented to them, thus resulting in prompt action and positive response to the message being conveyed. Therefore, it is important to select an appropriate visual image that can be combined and intricately woven with written and spoken words to form a unified communication unit effectively enhancing and refining the message(s) being conveyed (Horn, 1999). Past research in the realm of design and visual communications has indicated that there is a significant need to focus on the role of logos in branding and marketing campaigns. Todays society is extremely visually oriented and they use logos as a recognition aid, speeding selection of the preferred product (Henderson & Cote, 1998, p.14). This consumerist nature of the public when selecting preferred products indeed translates to how citizens can operate as political consumers. In Dion Dennis (2002) Inventing W, The Presidential Brand: The Rise of QVC Politics, he makes this point by taking the following statement and substituting the word
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6 politicians where the word companies is used and citizens where the word consumer is used:
Todays society is undeniably brand conscious. Were attracted to brands that project messages we like Forward thinking companies [politicians] understand that if their brand carries a message, it carries equity. Companies [politicians] now are using that equity to deepen relationships with customers [citizens] by offering supporting products that reflect the personality of the brand. Its called relationship marketing and it works (Dennis, 2000, as cited in Hockett, 2005, p. 91).
Furthermore, Johnson-Cartee and Copeland (1991) stated that voters no longer experience politics first-hand. Elements and pieces of knowledge are given to political consumers through the mass media system. Mass media has created symbols for the public to interpret on their own. Through these symbols, the voting public simplifies the political realities they should experience, e.g., the differences between Candidate X and Candidate Y, Democrats and Republicans, etc. (Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, 1991). Logos help create these simplified political realities and enable the public to view the vast political landscape as knowable, understandable and easy to navigate through. The U.S. 2008 presidential campaign demonstrated how visual communications play a pivotal role in promoting and developing an effective campaign strategy. The 2008 presidential election was an election of many firsts. Not only did the nation elect its first AfricanAmerican president but it was also the first time that a relatively unknown candidate was catapulted to the front line for nomination by his party and unexpectedly bested the other candidate. In a time when Americans were frustrated with issues that plagued the Bush administration the war in Iraq, the banking and mortgage crisis, the rising cost of health care and energy, and unemployment Obamas overall campaign message communicated themes of change and a mandate for change (Organizing for America, 2010). Obamas marketing team seized the opportunity to enhance that focus not just in words and eloquent delivery of speeches and
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7 messages by the candidate, but also by crafting a visual design concept that fit and was consistent with the theme of his campaign, all of which effectively helped in presenting him as a solid leader. It is interesting to note how the success of the Obama campaign triggered among many communication practitioners, graphic designers and political campaign strategists a renewed and revitalized emphasis on the need for a comprehensive logo design that could serve as a
cornerstone of a candidates brand. The Obama logo was featured consistently on all of the websites, signage, and marketing materials. Moreover, from a design standpoint, the Obama campaign logo was a complete and total departure from the stylistic norms of other presidential campaign logos, yet was one that resonated with millions of Americans (Heller, 2008). It would behoove campaign strategists and supporters to leverage party resources toward the development of a logo for a political candidate in future elections. This capstone focused specifically on the use of candidate logos as a political campaign tool. Understanding what has made other presidential campaign logos successful can equip designers with knowledge of what to incorporate and consider in future logo designs. The capstone begins by clearly delineating a logo versus a brand, explaining the purpose of logos and why they are integral in political campaigns. Next, the literature review looks at the role of the target audience (voters) when they view a logo/visual image. This section delineates different voter types and how each voter type would process visual information as it relate to logos. The literature review also examines several communication theories of emotion, information processing, appraisal and affective intelligence. Knowledge of the existing theoretical and empirical applications of communication and visual design concepts will be useful for communications practitioners and designers in the creation, development and/or
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8 selection of productive visual elements that would supplement, if not dominate, a political campaign. The sheer success of the 2008 Obama logo invites a systematic analysis of how a logo can be successfully used by a political candidate to convey key themes of his or her campaign, contribute to a candidates positive image and serve as a face of what the candidate represents. While for years, presidential candidates have employed political logos to supplement their campaign, it has only been in recent years that the use of campaign logos has garnered much attention from the general public. To accommodate this recent interest, this capstone conducts a
semiotic analysis of three of the more recent presidential logos: Barack Obamas O, George W. Bushs W, and John McCains Naval Star (Figure 1). This semiotic analysis is important because it explores the various factors that render the meaning of a political logo effective. The analysis highlights the importance and degree of influence that these political logos had on the public. Discussing the strengths and weaknesses of each logo will ostensibly equip campaign strategists, designers and party affiliates with a foundational knowledge and a set of best practices on what characteristics to consider and incorporate when creating a logo for future presidential candidates and their campaigns.
Figure 1: Barack Obamas O, George W. Bush W and John McCains Naval Star (Source: 4.president.org).
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9 BACKGROUND: THE LOGO AS A VISUAL COMMUNICATION TOOL Defining a Logo vs. a Brand Politics is a symbolic world (Johnson-Cartee, 1991, p. 1). In the realm of politics, symbols and logos are widely used to represent political figures, ideologies and social issues (Young, 2009). For example, the donkey and elephant logos are symbols of the Democratic and Republican parties, respectively. To the American public, the donkey and the elephant serve as powerful reminders and are visual shorthand for all of the political ideologies that each of these parties represent. In essence, these animals are the visual representation of the Democratic and Republican brands. It is important to clarify and delineate between the terms logo and brand. While they are many times used interchangeably, logos and brands differ in their form and function even if they work in tandem to serve an important purpose in visual communications. A brand is a visual tool that serves as a companys/organizations perceived image and reputation. It is an emotional tie that visually exudes the intangible characteristics of an organizations overarching goals, beliefs, promises and purpose, making a connection with its audience members (Pittard, Ewing & Jevons, 2007). Therefore, a brand is integral to instilling a positive image of the organization and the product/service they produce. Being that a brand is a type of visual tool, a logo functions as the face of a brand
(Rand, 1991). Paul Rand (1991) further defines a logo as a flag, a signature, an escutcheon and is an identifier that derives its meaning from the quality of the thing it symbolizes, not the other way around. For all intents and purposes, a logo provides viewers with instant recognition of an organization. It directly influences the viewers impression of that organizations product or the service it provides (Gernsheimer, 2008).
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LITERATURE REVIEW Defining the Role of the Target Audience: The Voting Public In todays partisan society, the dissemination of a candidates ideologies and political stance is a complex and challenging task. For any presidential candidate, the overarching goal is to persuade voters to vote for him/her and get elected. In order to achieve that goal, the candidate must display mass appeal ostensibly be everything to everyone and properly communicate his/her ideals to the voting public. The development of a candidates image is critical during an election campaign period, for their projected image, which must be perceived as positive and all-embracing if not the ultimate candidate, is a large, determining factor of success. Previous research claims that the publics voting intentions are commonly focused on the projected image of a candidate instead of a candidates policy concerns (Guzman, 2009). In such instances, utilizing a visual design system such as a logo to communicate a candidates political ideals, character and integrity is a practice that warrants further study and insight. As a whole, the general public is very aware of visual symbolsmost especially, an organizations logo. As graphic designer Paul Rand said, If in the business of communications, image is king, the essence of this image, the logo, is a jewel in its crown (Rand, 1991 as cited in Gernsheimer, 2008, p. 1). Existing theoretical literature on visual communication provides a high level view of its function and highlights its importance when considering a logo design in a political campaign. In visual communication, the role of the audience is central since the purpose of an image is to influence and persuade the audience about a belief of the past, present or future through the
presentation of a two-dimensional object (Tyler, 1992, as cited in Bennett, 2006). Both the theories of semiotics and of rhetoric acknowledge that the audience plays a proactive, if not a
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more dynamic role, in this process of persuasion. In semiotics (i.e. the study of signs, symbols and their interpretation), the audience holds or recognizes certain beliefs and reads messages based on these beliefs (Tyler, 1992, as cited in Bennett, 2006, p.37). Hence, the interpretation of a visual image is often specific to that individual. The rhetorical view of communication design, on the other hand, categorizes the audience as a dynamic participant where with the designer they co-construct the meaning and interpretation of a visual image (Tyler, 1992, as cited in Bennett, 2006). As previously stated, the interpretation of a visual image is on the whole subjective making it even more imperative for any logo designer to capture a positive, allencompassing appeal that will achieve the goal of a candidates election, regardless of varying individual interpretations given to it. The theoretical foundations of semiotics and rhetoric discussed above are seen in Nimmo and Savages (1976) empirical findings regarding a voters interpretation of a candidates image. In their study, many respondents defined the term image as a mental construct, while others defined it as visible attributes of a product, object or personthat is projected or transmitted to the consciousness of an audience. Combining these definitions, Nimmo and Savage concluded that the process of image making is an interactive one, shared by the voter and candidate, and in any case a profoundly important occurrence in any campaign (Nimmo & Savage, 1976, as cited in Kendall & Paine, 1995, p. 26). They insinuate that the goal of a political candidate as a designer of his own logo image is to generate a favorable response of himself to his audience while still allowing that same audience to develop an independent, albeit, positive interpretation of the candidate. When the audience plays a proactive role in the
interpretation of the image, they get a sense of empowerment and ownership as a coconstructor or co-designer of the image with the candidate. This contributes to a more favorable view of the
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candidate and is consistent with the rhetorical view of visual communication. A logo should not just be a means to an endi.e., a visual that lets voters know this is Candidate A and he/she is different from Candidate B. The development of a political campaign logo should be comprehensive a purposeful, visual representation of the candidate, and one that resonates with the public. To better understand the importance of a political logo and how a logo and image will positively resonate with the public, it is important to also understand voter types and how they process visual information. Kendall and Paine (1995) highlighted two models of voting publics: (1) the rational voter model and (2) the active voter model. The rational voter model assumes that voters will make their decisions under complete certainty, conduct the most comprehensive gathering of information on a candidate and take into account all other plausible alternatives by ordering them into some sort of evaluative criteria (Kendall & Paine, 1995). The rational voter model has limited empirical evidence since most voters do not have access to or even have the time to gather the most comprehensive information that enables them to exhaustively evaluate political candidates. The limitations of the rational model lead us to Nimmos (1978) review of voter models focusing specifically on the active voter. As opposed to the rational model, the active voter model postulates that a person engages in voting as a minded behavior and not necessarily a rational one (Nimmo, 1978 as cited in Kendall & Pane, 1995). To clarify, the active voter model posits that the voting process is one where the audience receives and interprets symbols and campaign images in accordance with their own perspectives and opinions (Nimmo, 1978 as cited in Kendall & Pane, 1995). While rational voters aggressively and actively seek all information about the candidates, the active voters are also engaged, but differ
from rational voters in that they seek information by selecting and sifting through the political
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environment a barrage of information regarding a candidates policy positions, leadership qualities and character on top of prior performance and experience (Brader, 2006). Although these models present some accurate behavior on the part of the voting public, they are actually incomplete. Both the rational and active models focus only on a demographic of the voting public who are considered proactive on different levels. These models do not take into consideration a large amount of the voting population that would generally fall in a category of the apathetic voter or inattentive public (Kendall & Paine, 1995). In general, a lot of people do not focus on politics and issues that are remote to them, or only do so when the issues personally affect them. People are generally cognitive misers, using shortcuts or heuristics when making voting decisions (Graber, 1985, as cited in Kendall & Paine, 1995, pg. 23). A campaign logo and the image that it projects is an example of such a heuristic. The public is selective in what they hear or read about the candidate and prefer to hear what they want to hear. So it is important that communication practitioners capture the publics interest in visuals, where one look captures all they want to know. A candidates political campaign logo should resonate not just among rational and active voters but also to a major section of the voting public that falls under the categories of apathetic and inattentive. It is this specific voter demographic where a logo can have a great impact and merits more focus and study. One should, however, remember that this large part of the voting population is not necessarily lacking in reason because many people are highly intelligent and capable. While they may not be actively seeking information about a candidate, they may rely on their ability to provide a more meaningful interpretation of a candidate through the logo, the visual image that was created to summarize a candidate.
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Understanding the role of the audience and voter types puts the importance of logo development into perspective, as it is not beyond the apathetic/inattentive voter population to rely on and utilize a visual image to navigate through a busy political landscape. One characteristic that a logo must have is that it is aesthetically pleasing to the viewer. This next section will discuss effective design principles to be considered when creating a logo. It will focus on the visual characteristics that can render a logo effective for the types of voters discussed above. Effective Logo Design Principles Verbally communicating a campaign message or a candidates brand may be quite a daunting task. This is where a logo design presented to the eyes of the voting public can help elucidate a more meaningful interpretation that message, consistent with the expected goal and objective of the political campaign or the candidate. Previous literature on the subject of logos have not determined a universal set of predictions on what types of designs should be selected and/or created in order to achieve the desired response for a logo specifically in a political campaign. However, this literature review looks to a study conducted by Henderson and Cote (1998) that involved an evaluation of two main dimensions of response and design of corporate/company logos. The analysis outlined the characteristics and principles of logo design that can powerfully increase a logos chances of being considered aesthetically pleasing to viewers, thus evoking a desired response from them. Henderson and Cote (1998) examined how variations in the design of a logo influenced individuals responses along a variety of response dimensions. The evaluated response dimensions included: (1) correct recognition - respondents in the study correctly recognizing logos seen in the past; (2) false recognition - respondents believe they recognize a logo, although
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have not seen it in the past; (3) affect - likability of the logo; and (4) familiar meaning - the logos ability to capture a clear connotation of the product, service or company the logo
represents. The evaluated design elements included: (1) elaboration - complexity, activeness and depth of the logo; (2) naturalness - an accurate depiction of the product/service it is representing; (3) harmony and proportion - balance and the relationship between horizontal and vertical dimensions; (4) parallelism the placement of the images lines and elements being adjacent to each other; (5) repetition how similar elements are to each other within the image; and (6) roundness the use of circular elements (Kohli, Suri, & Thakor, 2002). Henderson and Cotes 1998 study recommends three best practices that communications practitioners and graphic designers should take into account when creating a strong and affective logo for their target audience: (1) create or select a moderately elaborate logo; (2) the logo should exhibit an element of naturalness; and (3) the logo should have a high level of meaning to its viewer. Descriptions of the three best practices are as follows: Best Practice #1: Create or Select a Moderately Elaborate Logo. The Henderson and Cote (1998) study found that a moderately elaborate logo design is the most effective. With regards to design, an elaborate logo does not refer to the level of visual intricacy per se. It is comprised of characteristics such as complexity, activeness and depth and it is judged in its ability to utilize simpler design elements while capturing the concept or essence of the image (Henderson & Cote, 1998). A logo designer needs to achieve a moderate balance between too much and too little in order to sustain a viewers interest for a longer period of time. Therefore, a logo should strive for creative use of simplistic visual elements, but moderate elaboration in characteristics of complexity, activeness and depth so that regardless of repeated
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exposure to the logo, the viewer remains interested and/or develops an increased likability of the logo with more frequent exposure. Applying this practice to a political logo, a logo that is visually too simple may not provoke the viewers internal desire to know the candidate better, may simply find the candidate boring, or even worsesimilar to his/her competitors. An overly complex logo, on the other hand, may ultimately leave the viewer confused about the candidate.
Theoretical Application: Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM). This practice of developing a moderate and yet elaborate logo has theoretical foundations rooted in the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of persuasion. In the ELM, elaboration refers to the generation of cognitive responses to communication messagesmessages that can include visual images such as a logo. The ELM asserts there are two routes to persuasion: (1) the central/systematic route which is a process that requires a greater amount of thought with an individual having a high motivation and ability to process information; and (2) the peripheral/heuristic route which occurs when the individual has low motivation and ability to process information and obtains information by reliance on superficial cues, such as credibility of the source and source attractiveness, etc. (Petty, Priester, & Brinol, 2002). Therefore, a moderately elaborate logo can effectively satisfy both routes to persuasion and thus be more effective in persuading its audience regardless of how they process information presented to them. A moderately elaborate logo design perhaps can offer elements that deliberately provide an opportunity for several interpretations to the same image thereby enhancing cognitive activity of an audience who processes information through the central/systematic route. The central route audience draws their own conclusions from the logo, which would normally be in sync with the purpose of the logo. These audiences can find a direct intellectual connection with candidates through their logo. Individuals who are less inclined to do in-depth information
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processing and would prefer to rely on heuristics, e.g. the superficial cues of a logo such as bright colors or the use of a familiar image, will likewise find satisfaction and a sense of identification as they quickly form their conclusions based on surface characteristics of the design -- what is presented to them in the logo. Drawing on the literature regarding the types of voters, it appears that rational and active voters are more likely to follow the central/systematic route while apathetic/inattentive voters are more inclined to follow the peripheral/heuristic route. Theoretical Application: Motivation, Ability and Opportunity Framework. Another
theoretical framework that supports Henderson and Cotes suggestion to use moderately elaborate logos is the Motivation, Ability and Opportunity (MAO) model. The MAO model tends to target members of the inactive public and attempts to engage them in a level of information processing that is higher than the superficial level. The motivation component is responsible for the heightening of arousal so audiences will allocate cognitive resources to process information or continue to process information (Hallahan, 2000). Within this framework, proposed techniques to enhance audience motivation include the use of novel stimuli, moderately complex messages, and sources that are attractive or similar to the audience (Hallahan, 2000). Therefore, a moderately elaborate logo should employ techniques that enhance a voters ability to process messages by tapping into the individuals schema and existing cognitive resources and appeal to his/her identity. One such way to accomplish this is to use a combination of graphics, text and narration, concrete words and images, and recognizable marks (logos, logotypes, trademarks and symbols). The logo designer should be visually creative while avoiding distractions or complex arguments that will take away from the message and must include interactive illustrations or images (Hallahan, 2000).
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Best Practice #2: Create a Logo with a Natural Image Another factor that contributes to positive affect for a logo is naturalness. Naturalness in a logo is the degree to how the design depicts the commonly experienced object (Henderson & Cote, 1998). Henderson and Cote (1998) determine that there are two ways naturalness can be achieved: representative (the degree of realism in a design) and organic (designs made of natural shapese.g., not geometric shapes but irregular curves). It is important to take into consideration that the concept of naturalness in a logo should not be as natural as an image as seen in a photograph. A simpler, yet accurate depiction of the intended object is appropriate and more satisfying to look at (Henderson & Cote, 1998). This complements Gernsheimers (2008) text that outlines ten elements to create an enduring logo. It states that a properly designed logo
is one that is simple in its construction but not necessarily in concept (Gernsheimer, 2008). The concept should have depth and breadth with all its complexities, while projecting it in a logo image that is simple and easy to understand. When a logo has a simplistic level of natural and recognizable visual elements, it facilitates identification for its viewers. An example of simplistic naturalness is seen with the evolution of the Prudential logo (Figure 2). The logo was used to visually communicate that Prudential is the rock you can rely on, (Prudential, 2010). Although the logos from 1870 to 1940 essentially exhibit a high level of representative naturalness, they are extremely detailed and visually busy in their design. In 1984, Prudential began simplifying the level of representative naturalness by employing basic geometric shapes to construct the rock image, which turned out to be abstract and almost unrecognizable as the well-known Prudential symbol. As such, in 1990, the logo was recreated with a more organic naturalness. In this case, it was Prudentials most effective logo.
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The image remains that of a simplified, organic rock as a silhouetted familiar image connoting solidity, gracefulness and history (Prudential, 2010). Best Practice #3: Create a Logo with a High Level of Familiar Meaning. Another effective practice is to create a logo that displays a high level of familiar meaning to its viewers. The easier a logo is interpreted by its viewers, the higher the likelihood for recognition and being evaluated more favorably overall (Kohli, Suri, & Thakor, 2002). Henderson and Cote (1998) also found that logos which share similarities to popular, more well recognized logos while more likely to be falsely recognized can still be positively evaluated. Theoretical Application: Dual Process Theory. Empirical evidence that provides further explanation about the variances in logo preference is seen in Groves and Thompsons (1970) Dual Process Theory. This theory assumes that two underlying neural processes affect the response to a stimulus: (1) habituation, a decrease in responsiveness and (2) sensitization, an increase in responsiveness (Janiszewski & Meyvis, 2001). Sensitization depends on stimulus
intensity. For example, a high contrast stimulus is more interesting than a lowcontrast stimulus; a complex stimulus is more stimulating than a simple stimulus; and a significant stimulus is more stimulating than an irrelevant stimulus (Janiszewski & Meyvis, 2001). This assumption is in tandem with Henderson and Cotes findingssalient logos are more meaningful, are conceptually fluent and are more likely to be accepted by the viewer (Janiszewski & Meyvis, 2001). Factors of habituation are dependent on the intensity of a stimulus. Essentially, a less
Figure 2: Evolution of the Prudential Logo. (Source: Prudential advertising campaign)
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intense stimulus will result in stronger habituation and thus a decrease in responsiveness and interest at a faster rate (Janiszewski & Meyvis, 2001). Habituation at a faster rate will result in loss of interest among viewers. For a logo to be effective, it should contain a meaningful design that conveys a message that will not dissipate too quickly and instead enhance or heighten the intensity of the viewers interest. After gaining a better understanding of successful design principles, it is also important to consider that an aesthetically pleasing logo may not always communicate the correct message. To understand this phenomenon, the next section of this literature review will look at how factors of emotion can affect interpretation of a visual image and how a design should be visually structured to elicit the correct emotion or a positive interpretation. Emotion in Logo Interpretation Green and Loveluck (1992) laid out a psychological, theoretical framework that contributes to our knowledge of how individuals view and interpret a corporations logo. The findings from this reading merits inclusion in this literature review, as there are many aspects of corporate logo design that can translate to and inform design practice in the development of political logos. Green and Loveluck (1992) lay out three sources of information that contribute to a persons understanding of a symbol: (1) the purpose of the communication; (2) the properties of a symbol referential and graphical; and (3) the context in which the symbol is seen. To clarify the first source of information, it is extremely important for individuals to understand that
properties of a symbol should be designed to communicate information about a corporation and/or organization and to treat the symbol as relevant to what the company wants to say about itself just as in a speech context we treat utterances of another person as relevant to that context (Green and Loveluck, 1992, p. 39). The second source of information that contributes
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to a persons understanding of a symbol can be best described using the example of the most recent version of the Prudential Logo (Figure 2). The referential properties of a symbol allude to what the symbol actually depicts. In this case, the symbol depicts a large rock the famous rock of Gibraltar. The graphical elements of the symbol refer to how the image is constructed for the viewer. Referencing the Prudential logo, the graphical elements of the logo incorporate the use of a two-toned image (light blue and white), where the rock image is circumscribed within a circle, using simple and bold lines to create the whole image. The use of these types of elements and the choice to incorporate the graphical elements in this way can connote different meanings to different people. To further clarify this concept, the use of simple and bold lines to create the rock logo can convey that the organization or company it stands for exhibits characteristics of strength and powerpositive attributes that exemplify a life insurance company dedicated to serving and protecting the wealth of both individual and institutional customers. To another person who may not be familiar with Prudential, the use of an icy blue color can be off-putting to a viewer. Icy blue can connote characteristics of being a company that is cold, not personable or not caring of their customers. In this instance, it is plausible that the same logo evoking a positive response in the first example, can elicit a negative response with another individual who had an unfavorable customer experience with Prudential. The graphical and referential properties of a symbol as well as the context in which a symbol is seen can produce various interpretations of its message. This is because visual interpretations are almost always attached to emotion. Verbal communications tend to leave
their audiences in a more rational, logical and linear pathway of thought, while visuals have the tendency to resonate with their audience on an emotional level, which in turn, can socially engineer change in beliefs and in attitudes (Joffe, 2008). Because emotions are affected by the
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quality of visual materials, it is essential to look into literatures regarding theories of emotion on information processing and their application in order to help communication practitioners, communication strategists, visual designers and candidates alike understand what elements of emotion to consider when creating an meaningful political campaign logo. Theoretical Application: Color Theory. When a person sees a logo, they are essentially looking at the formation of carefully crafted colors and the shapes of those colors. The appropriate use of color therefore is a powerful tool that stirs the emotion of viewers and allows them to see in the logo the total expression of the candidates personality. Extensive literature on color theory provides a set of theoretical constructs and guiding principles that can be used to create harmonious color combinations that will render a logo as aesthetically pleasing or extremely relevant. The assumption that color is a tool to evoke emotion is seen in Johann Wolfgang von Goethes (1810) Zur Farbenlehre (Theory of Color.) In Zur Farbenlehre, Goethe divided all colors into two separate groups believing that colors are linked to emotion. One group consisted of warm colors, i.e., red to orange to yellow, which normally produces excitement among their viewers. On the other hand, cool colors, i.e., green to blue to violet, produce unsettled feelings (Stone, Adams, & Morioka, 2006). Referring to Figure 3, Goethe claimed that the combinations of IC, IIC, IIIC, and IIA in his color triangle produced a serene color palette (Stone, Adams, & Morioka, 2006). In accordance with the previously discussed concept of subjectivity in visual communication, this color palette is interpreted as such by its viewer. Depending on how this color combination is used and what it is used for, will determine if this palette really is considered serene.
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It is important to note this subjectivity exists because the human eye and brain experience color physically, mentally and emotionally (Stone, Adams, & Morioka, 2006). Consequently, colors themselves have meanings that are culturally defined and agreed upon, so it is important to have a grasp of the various meanings and investigate how colors differ culturally before selecting colors for a logo. Supplemental literature further shows colors effect on emotion through Braders (2000) study in the use of emotional appeals and political ads in the 2000 election. One area of his study focused on color in political advertisements and found that color is related to emotional cues. While his study focused specifically on political advertisements cuing emotions of fear and enthusiasm, this can certainly be translated to the selection of colors in the development of a political logo. He found that specific color schemes appeal to primary emotions. For example, a black and white color scheme or a dim/dark color palette connote fear or anger, while bright and colorful imagery produces the opposite effect, by cuing emotions of enthusiasm or pride (Brader, 2006). Emotions are reactions that are short-lived, intense and directed to some sort of external stimuli, whether it be an event, object, image or person (Nabi, 2002). Therefore, in the realm of politics and political elections, evoking the right emotion at the right intensity and at the right
Figure 3: Goethes Color Triangle. Color Mixing and Goethes Triangle.
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time can convince a voter to cast their vote for the candidate they emotionally connect with. The following theoretical applications contribute to understanding the role of emotion as it relates to the design realm. Theoretical Application: Appraisal Theory. The core tenet of appraisal theory is that emotions are drawn out by an individuals evaluations of events and situations (Roseman & Smith, as cited in Scherer, Schorr and Johnstone, 2001). With regards to the development of an
image such as a campaign logo, designers, communication practitioners and campaign strategists would aim to create an all-encompassing logo that elicits the proper emotion, ostensibly sending out the proper message about the candidate. It is plausible that an image deemed positive by one individual may evoke a negative emotion in another individual. Appraisal theory can provide an explanation for the differentiated nature of emotional responses to a visual image. While there is limited literature on the subject of logo design, Desmet (2002) examined how appraisal theory can inform practitioners on how the appearance of products (product design) can evoke specific emotions in the viewer (Demir, Desmet & Hekkert, 2009). In his assessment, he narrowed product appraisal (the effect of a product on ones well being) down to four main types: (1) relation of a product to ones goals; (2) sensorial appeal of the product; (3) the legitimacy of an action represented by the product; and (4) novelty of the product (Demir, Desmet & Hekkert, 2009). With the first product appraisal, the relation of a product to ones goals, the end user is concerned with how does this product meet my goals, beliefs, or standards? And how is it in line with my personal well being? The second appraisal, sensorial appeal, refers to our dispositional likes, tastes or attributes in a product. A product that is in line with our attitudes will be appraised as appealing, while one that is not in line with our attitudes is unappealing. The third appraisal, the legitimacy of an action represented by the product, depends on whether a
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product is perceived to meet our standards and reflect the norms and beliefs of how things should be. The fourth appraisal focuses on the novelty of the product. Novelty refers to how much a product deviates from the norm or from our expectations of how it should be. A product appraised as novel, will result in an emotion of pleasant surprise from the viewer. Another design study relying on the core assumptions of the appraisal theory were seen in Normans (2004) article that incorporated the role of mental processing and its effects on affective responses. He asserts that processing occurs on three different levels, and to
complement each of these levels, he proposes three design strategies:

(1) Visceral: governs responses through direct perception. Design strategy recommended: design for appearance. (2) Behavioral: involving learnt but automatic affective responses. Design strategy recommended: design for ease of use. (3) Reflective: involving affective responses due to conscious thinking. Design strategy recommended: design for reflective meaning. (Norman, as cited in Demir, Desmet & Hekkert, 2009, p.41).
Theoretical Application: Affective Intelligence. For further insight and understanding into the role of emotion within visual images and its influence on political behavior, it is necessary to focus on Marcus, Neuman and MacKuens (2000) theory of affective intelligence which states that there are two parallel emotional systems in operation that work to shape the voting citizens choices and political behavior (as cited in Brader, 2006). The first is the disposition system, which regulates the motivation of a person to act on their existing political habits, e.g., partisanship, prejudice toward a candidate, or predispositions. The second is the surveillance system, which is triggered by a threatening condition of awakening citizens into an anxious state that encourages them to consider other choices (Brader, 2006). With images that evoke a positive mood for the viewer or if a viewer is already in a positive state, viewers tend to engage in top-down processing, relying on pre-existing beliefs or heuristics such as a visual image. On the other hand, with images that evoke a negative mood, or if a viewer is in a
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negative mood, viewers tend to engage in bottom-up systematic processing, where interpretation of an image comes from data or information given to the viewer (Schwartz, 2000 as cited in Brader, 2005). For the purposes of this literature review, it is important to focus specifically on positive emotional appeals that would help create an effective political logo because in a presidential election, a logo serves as the shorthand image of a presidential candidate. Braders (2005) research looked at enthusiasm (a positive emotional appeal) and its impact in an election campaign. He revealed that the findings were in accord with the theory of affective intelligence, whereby enthusiasm appeals led viewers to rely on their pre-existing beliefs and preferences to
choose a political candidate. In addition, enthusiasm appeals generated more overall interest in the candidates political campaign (Brader, 2005). Perhaps the theory of affective intelligence suggests that a logo might have the most positive effect on people who already hold the same views as the candidate, reinforcing their existing loyalties to that candidate and the party it represents. In order to garner a positive response across political party lines and resonate with others that many not hold the same pre-existing beliefs, the logo must be structured and designed in a way to positively promote the stability of the candidate to become the president. Literature Review Summary As discussed throughout this literature review, a political logo is an integral piece of communication when structuring a political marketing campaign. The design practices and principles as well as the theoretical foundations presented in this literature review are a summation of criteria and elements to be considered when creating an effective logo. This includes several design best practices such as: (1) the creation or selection of a moderately elaborate logo; (2) must exhibit an element of naturalness; and (3) have a high level of
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meaning to its viewer. The first two practices lean more towards design principles and focus on graphical properties that render a logo aesthetically pleasing. While logos can be aesthetically pleasing, that may not mean they are effective. Therefore, the third best practice suggests that designers and practitioners should greatly consider the referential properties of a logo, which warrants a strong focus on factors such as emotional elements in the processing of a visual image. This affects how a logo image is received and interpreted when viewed by the audience. While this literature review established criteria that were not specifically geared toward political logo design, this capstone will also investigate if such practices and principles are applicable to presidential campaign logos. Incorporating and adopting general best design practices as they relate to logos may contribute to an aesthetically pleasing political candidate logo. A logo can ostensibly serve as a powerful mode of political communication in a
presidential campaign. The next section of this capstone will discuss the methods used in tandem with these best practices garnered from this literature review to analyze the effectiveness of three presidential logos.
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CASE PROFILE The literature review focused on theories and principles of design that result in the production of an effective corporate or organization logo. It is noted, however, there is a lack of literature that zeroes in on the design of a political logo that is powerful and encompassing of a political candidate. It is therefore interesting to be able to see to what extent the best practices for logo design by companies or other organizations can be applied to the logo design for a political candidate. How are the processes of creating a corporate logo similar or different from that of a political logo? Where are the points of convergence and divergence when it comes to best practices and principles of design? Will the same principles and practices applied in an effective or highly successful corporate logo design result in a successful political logo? Just as an effective corporate logo design translates into company profits, will an effective political logo translate into election of a political candidate? This capstone aims to investigate the principles and best practices in corporate logo design and how they can be successfully applied to creation of political logos. This capstone uses a semiotic analysis approach in order to inform our understanding of the effectiveness, strengths, weaknesses, and how an individual can derive meaning from a political logo image. Choice of Logos This capstone is timely in that both during and after the 2008 presidential election, political campaign strategists, marketers and graphic designers saw merit in Obamas implementation of a powerful and effective logo from the beginning of his campaign until after his election as president. Understanding the elements of what makes a political logo effective will be beneficial for future candidates announcing their intent to run for the 2012 presidential election and beyond.
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To satisfy the recent interest in this area, this capstone will look into the political campaign logos of two successful presidential candidates (Barack Obama [2008] and George W. Bush [2004]), and that of an unsuccessful candidate (John McCain [2008]). It is important to note that this capstone does not solely attribute the successful election of Presidents Obama and Bush to their respective logos, although the impact of their logo designs may be rendered effective and successful in highlighting the candidates that increased the public's interest in getting to know them more. Conducting a semiotic analysis on a logo used by a winning candidate versus that of candidate who did not win offers a contrast that provides context on how an aesthetically pleasing logo can sometimes convey unintended meaning. Although there are many variations of the presidential candidate logos (due to the voting public posting different iterations that may not have been the original version), this capstone chose to select logos from a presidential candidate logo and website repository called www.4president.org. Semiotic Analysis Semiology is essentially the study of "signs" and hence, semiotics can equip sign or logo analysts with the proper tools to enable them to systematically approach sign systems in order to understand how a sign or signal produces its meaning (Penn, 2000). The concept of semiotics has its foundation rooted in Ferdinand de Saussures work in structural linguistics. A linguistic unit is called a sign, and a sign is divided into two parts: (1) a signifier the form it takes; and (2) the signified the concept it represents (Penn, 2000). These two concepts are closely related and inter-connected to each other. While the signifier and signified can be analyzed separately, they only exist as components of a total sign system and, therefore, they cannot exist without each other. It is important to keep in mind that in delving into the meaning of a sign, the
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assessment of its two parts the signifier and the signified are taken together when in
relation to their structures and their structural relationships with other signs (Dyer, 1986, p. 123). From Saussures foundation of semiotics, other scholars have developed different variations on how to analyze images. Images have a polysemic (ambiguous) nature, therefore variances in sign/symbol interpretation are influenced by factors such as: (1) culture; (2) the individual; and (3) elements of the image such as typography, captions and colors (Penn, 2000). Penn notes that because of their polysemic nature, images sometimes require accompanying text. The accompanying text, referred to as anchorage serves to clarify and disambiguate the image (2000). At other times, both the image and text are presented simultaneously to clarify the overall meaning of the image. This is what is referred to as relay. It is important to note that written and spoken communication differs from visual communication in that with written and spoken language, signs appear to the audience in a controlled and carefully calculated sequence. However, in images, all elements of a visual sign are presented to the viewer simultaneously, where there is less control in dictating the message sequence to its viewer (Penn, 2000). Based on the foundations formed by Saussure and Pierce, other scholars have examined and focused on different aspects of sign relationships. Moriarty (2005) asserts that in the theory of signs there is a notion of oppositions and their role in creating meaning that should be considered. In this regard, a semiotic analysis would then consider the difference between the denotative and connotative meanings of signs. Denotative versus Connotative Relationships. When conducting a semiotic analysis of an image, a denotative inventory would consist of a direct and specific description of the signified. This inventory is a literal description of what the viewer sees. To conduct a
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connotative inventory is to actually delineate what meaning the visual image evokes. Moriarty (2005) refers to this as the cultural baggage related to or associated with the visual image. Highlighting the cultural knowledges and syntagm associated with an image can provide the viewer with further insight and information into the images meaning. An example of cultural knowledges needed to provide context to an images meaning
is seen in the selection of an eagle as American Universitys mascot. In order for a viewer to properly draw a connection with the eagle representing American University, it is useful to know is that in the United States, the eagle is a symbol of America and patriotism. First President, George Washington expressed a dream of having a national university in Washington, D.C.the nations capital (American University: History, 2011). After understanding this context of why the university was built, American University can be meaningfully embodied in the form of an eagle. Exploring the syntagms or syntagmatic relations of a sign informs how the elements of a visual are juxtaposed and patterned can elicit various meanings and interpretations. Such elements include: color, size, positioning, cues of emphasis and relationships of the elements to each other (Penn, 2000). Penn (2000) demonstrates a syntagmatic relationship using a Givenchy perfume advertisements choice of typeface. She systematically outlines the elements of case, orientation, letter proportion and typeface style to derive visual meaning from the word Organza in the advertisement. (Refer to Figure 4 for an image of the advertisement and Table 1 for the results.) It is important to note her analysis included the unchosen syntagmatic elements in order to understand what other typeface options could have been incorporated into the image. Utilizing other syntagmatic elements would have changed the visual meaning of the typeface and the advertisement as a whole.
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Penn describes the font selection of the word Organza as handwritten suggests an afterthought: a caption supplied to the already complete image. The Z is drawn with a flourish and the letters are clearly formed italicized capitals, suggesting perhaps flair, optimism and extraversion (Penn, 2000, p. 235). Incorporating the other syntagmatic choices from Table 1 and manipulating the advertisement to display the word Organza in a form opposite from the advertisemente.g., using lowercase letters, roman orientation, expanded proportions and a serif font the visual meaning of the word Organza will ostensibly change. Figure 5 shows a
mock Givenchy advertisement with a new set of syntagmatic elements. The manipulated advertisement loses the original suggestion of flair, optimism and extraversion. While the choice in typeface it is still visually appealing, the new font combined with the original image of the woman and the perfume bottle gives off a completely different vibe. The manipulated advertisement now seems to imply the perfume is for more conservative, subdued, classy and elegant types of women.
Figure 4: Givenchy Organza advertisement.
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Semiology is applied to a variety of sign systems ranging from fashion, architecture, and consumer products to publicity methods (Penn, 2000). The goal of the semiotic analysis is to elicit the cultural knowledge that is required for the viewer to understand the image and its intended meaning (Penn, 2000). Considering Moriartys notion of opposition, Penn outlines a semiotic analysis approach that is best applied to advertising images. This approach is most closely related to an analysis of logos, as logos are in essence, a form of an advertising image for a presidential candidate. This capstone models the semiotic analysis method created by Penn (2000) in the comparative study of the effectiveness or non-effectiveness of the political campaign logos of Obama, Bush and McCain. Each of the three presidential candidate logos was analyzed denotatively then connotatively, following the steps outlined in Figure 6.
Figure 5: Typeface change in the word Organza
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CASE ANALYSES & DISCUSSION Denotational Inventory The capstone used Penns (2000) semiological method of analysis. The analytical process
began by conducting a denotational inventory of each presidential (Obama, G. W. Bush and McCain) candidate logo. The inventory focuses on the literal elements of the logo, which were grouped into two main components: text and images. The text inventory for each candidate logo took into account the location of text, the characteristics of the font and the color of text. The image inventory notes the use of colors, shapes and textures, and how these elements were combined to create an image. Appendix A (page 58) features a full table showcasing the denotational inventorys findings. Higher Levels of Signification (Connotative Inventory) The connotative inventory builds on the groundwork laid out by the denotational inventory in order to create a more meaningful analysis of the elements used in the discussion. The connotative inventory asks a series of related questions for each specific element (Penn, 2000). Examples of questions in a connotative inventory are listed in Figure 6. Conducting a connotative inventory is essential because visual elements are polysemic and the various interpretations of a visual image can contribute to more than one higher order sign. Highlights of the connotative analysis of the three political logos derived from the discussions of several important elements of the logo are presented. Comprehensive tables (Appendices B, C and D on pages 59-61) showcase the full results of the connotative inventories conducted for each of the presidential candidate logos.
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Element 1: Text. In all three of the presidential logos, the names of both the presidential candidate and their vice presidential running mate are featured, with the presidential candidates name listed on top. This connotes that the presidential candidate should be the viewers main focus. While their running mate remains important, the name rests below the presidential candidates name implying a more subordinate position and supporting role. This concept of primarysubordinate positioning of the names in text is conveyed more effectively and clearly in the logos of both Obama and Bush than that of McCains. Although Biden's name utilizes the same typeface as that of Obamas name, the size of Obama's name is larger and more prominent, suggesting the
more important role of a U.S. President. The same is observed in Bushs 2004 logo where Cheneys name is smaller than that of Bushs. On the other hand, the typeface and size of McCains name in his campaign logo is the same as his running mate, Palin. The similarity in typeface and size as a design choice can elicit varying interpretations from different viewers. It can connote equality in importance of McCain and Palin as candidates and the positions they are seeking. For voters who want to see a woman serving in a high position as the Vice President of the United States, this equal font size may be viewed favorably because it reinforces the idea that there is no reason why a woman cannot serve in a high political office as the presidents back up. The McCain/Palin logo suggests that McCain and Palin have equal abilities to run the country and strengthens the position of gender equality. Alternatively though, this logo may not sit well with viewers who want to see a distinction between the role of the president and vice president. It can run the risk of being counterproductive when other viewers and the media start to shift the attention to the vice presidential candidate and in his/her qualifications to the Presidents successor should he become incapacitated. As can be seen throughout the campaign, the media
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coverage portrayed Palin as unfit to serve as McCains backup. As seen in the unfortunate interview with Katie Couric and the Saturday Night Live parodies, Palins political inexperience and naivete became a source of humorous mockery of her capabilities and what she stands for. At a pivotal point in the campaign, Palin's lack of achievement became the center of focus instead of McCain's experience, abilities and achievements. The choice of the style of fonts/typefaces is another area of focus when it comes to designing of a political logo. The typeface style selected can have a direct or indirect impact on the viewer who can attach various meanings based on font used. As seen in the Givenchy Organza perfume logo example, the overall visual meaning of an image with supplemental text is guided by its typeface selection. Alterations in the formatting of letters the selection of a
serif font versus a sans serif font have an impact in the connotation. Figure 7 offers the visible differences between the serif and sans serif fonts. The red lines in the last example indicate the location of the serifs on a letter. The denotational inventory (Appendix A) shows that each candidate utilized the following font types in their campaign logos:
- Obama/Biden: Small capital letters, serif font
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- Bush/McCain04: Bold capital letters, sans serif font - McCain/Palin: Capital letters, (technically) a sans serif font
Many studies have been conducted regarding the readability of serif versus sans serif typefaces. Studies have shown that serif typefaces are more readable than sans serifs; however, other studies contradict those findings and found the reverse to be true. Regardless of the disparities in these findings, one result that was consistent across these studies was that viewers deem typefaces to be the most readable when exposed to typefaces that they are more accustomed to and are often seen (Felici, 2003). Typical texts (books, newspapers, magazines) traditionally utilize serif fonts for large amounts of text while a sans serif type is more often utilized in a display role making titles and headings in advertisements more prominent (Felici, 2003). Utilizing capital letters is a typical design choice for a typeface in a display role, and each candidate effectively does this. Bush follows the norm by using a bold, sans serif typeface which is a solid choice of lettering. This can connote the stance of business as usual, which may be acceptable but does not stand out as much to the viewer. Obama, on the other hand goes against the norm of display roles by using a serif font. Obamas typeface is different from the standard although it remains aesthetically pleasing and is an effective message conveyor of a promise of hope and change. Using a polished, contemporary and atypical font such as the serif font in the Obama/Biden logo is visually consistent with those themes, connoting to viewers that Obama and Biden can provide a complete change from the Bush administration. McCain and Palins typeface selection seems to be indecisive. While it technically employs a sans serif
font, there is some subtle making of serifs at the end of the character. This element of an inbetween font can come off as confusing leaving a question mark in the minds of the viewer and a degree of uncertainty that McCain/Palin may not be sure of their stance or goal. Such choice of an in-between typeface can be considered a safe font to use, where it may visually please a
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wider audience but in reality convey the wrong meaning. The ambiguity in typeface selection may project the Republican candidates as having no strong stand on policies and issues and simply catering or accommodating to as many voters as possible. The McCain/Palin typeface selected was called Optima-- the same font used in the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C. This design choice may have been deliberate for the purpose of highlighting McCain's prestigious military career and his heroism as a Prisoner of War. While this design choice most likely resonated well with McCains supporters, it may not have been a wise choice at a time when many other Americans expressed a wish to withdraw troops. The militaristic undertone of the logo can subliminally remind viewers of the fact that both McCain and Palin were advocates of the troop surge in the Middle East. Element 2: Inclusion of a URL. The denotational inventory shows that two of the three logos (Obama and McCain) incorporated web URLs which direct viewers to the candidates official websites where they can obtain more information on the candidate, their political views and other campaign activities. Though adding the website URL on a logo does not serve any artistic purpose, incorporating it urges the viewer to take action in learning more about the candidate or gives voters an action outlet and means to be more proactive in supporting the candidate's campaign. Unlike that of Obama/Biden and McCain/Palin logos, the Bush/Cheney logo does not include a website URL. This may be attributed to the fact that that in the 2004 elections, the emphasis on social media was not as popular it was in the 2008 election. In 2008, Obama revolutionized his political
campaign by blitzing the public with both traditional and social media tools e.g., blogging, Facebook, Twitter, and even iPhone Apps (Seidman, 2008). The success of Obamas campaign in the social media realm is undoubtedly a best practice and will likely be incorporated in all
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future presidential campaigns. Hence, for any future presidential campaign logo, a web URL should be included in its design so that it prompts its audience to be more proactive and support the election of a candidate. Element 3: The logo image. Each presidential logo includes a visual piece that represents the candidate and possibly, their running mate. This area of discussion evaluated each visual in light of the three best practices of logo design as outlined in the capstones literature review: (1) the creation or selection of a moderately elaborate logo; (2) exhibition of an element of naturalness; and (3) having a high level of meaning to its viewer which will be derived from the results of the semiotic analysis. The denotational inventorys findings indicate that each logo utilizes simple geometric shapes put together to create a meaningful image that is easily associated with the candidate. Obama and Bush select a color palette that is typical of U.S. political logos: red, white and blue. McCain uses blue, black and white which are also typical of political logos, however ventures out by incorporating a yellow/gold color which is a non-traditional color for a presidential logo. What follows is an explanation of how each logo incorporates aspects of the three best practices above, coupled with a semiotic analysis to understand how logos may produce meaning to its viewers. Obama/Biden Logo Image
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The Obama logo exhibits characteristics consistent with the three guiding principles of
effective logo development: (1) It is a moderately elaborate logo. While the logo colors and the pictorial elements may be considered simple, it is presented in a creative and inventive way that renders it moderately elaborate. The logo represents a sun over the horizon but at the same time also serves as a rendition of the American flag. For those inclined to actively process information, further scrutiny will show that the blue sky is the part of the arch that forms the letter O in Obama. The O pervades in the logo, thus echoing the first letter of the candidates name. This is a reminder to the viewer of who the presidential candidate is. Essentially, the logo may solely represent Obama, even if the words Obama Biden were not underneath the image. The image speaks for itself and stands for what Obama and Biden were campaigning for. For those who are not as motivated to process in-depth information, the logo remains to have a strong appeal, since it is an aesthetically pleasing logo. The moderately elaborate logo design offers some freshness and novelty that is pleasing to the eyes and can persuade even an apathetic voter to vote for Obama. (2) The logo displayed a level of naturalness with a simple design of the sun coming over the horizon, a scene with which most people can identify. The sun, which is a primary source of energy, presents a picture of the candidate as strong, energetic and environmentally conscious. The red stripes of the flag that help form the other half of "O" image can be viewed by the audience as the sun coming over rows of farmland. A piece of cultural knowledge that is important to know is that farmland is an image that is historically used to represent the American landscape. The use of color and basic shapes portray a concept of a sunrise coming over the horizonwhich to some audiences is symbolic and an effective visual
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representation of change and a new day. The political promise of a new day is a similar theme that resonated positively with voters in the 1980 election of Ronald Reagan as President. The
theme was revived in the Obama logo in the form of a horizon image that effectively captured and conveyed to viewers Obamas campaign messages of hope and change (Seidman, 2010). (3) The logo offered a high level of meaning with its viewing audience. Starting with its color palette, the logo extracts the patriotic emotion of pride (a positive emotion) by using red, white and blue. This color palette is almost always personally relevant and displays a high level of meaning to Americans. With much hype and media coverage that questioned Obamas natural heritage and suggestions of not being American citizen, the decision to utilize the patriotic colors of red, white and blue, may have been a strategic decision by designers to allay any concerns of his citizenship or nationalistic leaning. The red, white and blue that formed the O presents him without doubt as an American citizen. The logos elements were visually broad, evoking and creating different levels of inspiration that reinforced to its viewers all the ideals and change that Obama stood for. In fact, it was broad enough that subgroups of Obama supporters including various cultural and minority groups such as the People of Faith for Obama, First Americans for Obama, Kids for Obama and Women for Obama, etc. adapted the O in their logos. Likewise, the logo was adapted into the names of each of the 50 U.S. States (Figure 8). These adaptations of Obamas logo, has allowed audiences to attribute various meaning to Obamas ideologies by making the logo a part of their own individual initiatives that show support for their presidential candidate of choiceObama. Allowing the audience to be a co-designer of the Obama logo contributes to the appeal of the
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image, rendering it more effective and meaningful to its viewers. The widespread use of the logo has undoubtedly contributed to Obamas level of exposure throughout the election campaign. Henderson and Cote (1998) found that logos which share similarities in design to popular and well-recognized logos not only have a higher likelihood of recognition, but also are more
positively evaluated. The Obama logo bears some sort of resemblance to the most recent version of the Pepsi logo (Figure 9) in the overall shape, design concept and color selection. Pepsi, which is a popular and a positively regarded product, has been around for many years. The logo caters to the younger crowd or the older generation who wants to stay young it connotes innovation and yet remains a true classic. Throughout the years, Pepsi's marketing campaigns utilized themes and slogans such as, Be Young, Have Fun, Drink Pepsi; or Pepsi: The Next Generation, etc. Obama incorporated a Pepsi-like appeal to the youth of the country in his campaign. In the 2008 election, one of Obamas target demographics was the young voter. His political logo image and design seem to have found its way to young voters who are partial to the
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"Pepsi" appeal. In certain circumstances, familiarity breeds liking, and whether or not it was intentional to adopt a similar feel to the Pepsi logo the Obama logo gained an advantage. Bush/Cheney Logo Image The Bush/Cheney logo effectively incorporates aspects of each of the three design practices resulting in a powerful impact and positive resonance to the viewers. (1) It is a moderately elaborate logo. Like the Obama/Biden logo, Bush/Cheney utilizes the three most popular colors of red, white and blue in U.S. political campaign. While Obama logo presents more creativity through the subtle re-creation of the American flag, the Bush/Cheney logo incorporates this most patriotic symbol closer to its true form. Certain artistic elements are incorporated into the design that shows viewers more than just an American flag. Americans refer to George W. Bush as W. The W is abbreviated for George Bushs middle name Walker. In short, W was not only a nickname, but also a way for Americans to distinguish him from his father, George H.W. Bush, the 41st President of the United States. The formation of the letter W is hinted in the angle of the flags sharp creases and corners. The
Figure 9: Obama Logo vs. Pepsi Logo
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moderately elaborate Bush/Cheney flag therefore represents not only America and patriotism, but also specifically refers to George W. Bush through the W formation. Embracing the initial that was shorthand for Bush, there were other variations of the W visual. Figure 10 shows an example of how a group took the actual W logo and applied it to women who were Bush/Cheney supporters. The W gives an enhanced meaning where the letter W literally stands for women and thus George W. Bush supports women. Another way the W concept was popularly used was seen in the form of a square shaped, black bumper sticker. The simple black background featured a stark white, serif letter W and underneath it are the words in serif capital letters, THE PRESIDENT (Figure 11). The W branched out in ways that suited a variety of demographics. The www.GeorgeWBushStore.com created several departments that targeted specific demographics to sell W memorabilia to (Hockett, 2005). Departments such as the Farm Ranch Team and Across America Racing Team appealed to rural voters by creating W logos that displayed characteristics similar to the John Deere logo or the NASCAR racing logo. The W The President department applied the logo in Figure 10 onto memorabilia that was directed to those with more refined tastes and featured items like cufflinks, whiskey glasses, golf towels, golf balls and cigars (Hockett, 2005). While this attempt to brand George W. Bush as W and using a
Figure 11: The W The President logo (GeorgeWBushStore.com) Figure 10: The W The President logo (4president.org)
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variety of W logos to appeal to different demographics was somewhat effective, Obamas logo proves to be more successful because his supporters utilize his actual, official campaign logo for each groups purposes. The strength of the logo helped establish visual consistency of Obamas campaign as opposed to the W logo. Obamas logo avoided confusion among viewers,
provided cohesion among supporters and instilled a sense of solidarity throughout the campaign. (2) The logo displays a level of naturalness. The image of the American flag exhibits a high-level of naturalness, featuring the familiar red and white stripes as well as white stars on a blue background. One quick glance at the image is all the viewer requires in order to register that it is an American flag. It can be argued by some viewers that the wave of the flag looks rather unnatural and too contrived. The ripples in the flag take on sharp, upward facing folds versus exhibiting a more realistic, fluid motion as if the flag were actually flapping in the wind. Another point that can be contested is that after further scrutiny of the flag, the viewer may see that it is not accurately depicted. The flag displays only seven stripes instead of 13 and only 20 stars instead of 50. In the real American flag, the blue area with the stars only occupy the top left hand corner but the Bush/Cheney variation takes up the left third of the flag, expanding from top to bottom. It is possible that there was an issue of space limitation or that putting 13 stripes and 50 stars would make the logo look overcrowded. While it is plausible that the flag for logo purposes was purely representational, it can be argued that the symbol is a misrepresentation of the real American flag. (3) The logo offers a high level of meaning with its viewing audience. This logo has several different meanings. A cultural knowledge that is important to know was at the time of the Bush/Cheney campaign, the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 remained fresh in the
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American publics memory. As such, many Americans were not resistant to the idea of going to war in defense of their country. Bush was catapulted into the position of a wartime president. The overall political climate was focused primarily on issues of national security and being tough on terrorism. Understanding this cultural knowledge, viewers may see that the flag on the Bush/Cheney logo leans to the right, with the flags sharp creases coming forward, towards
the viewer. This can connote the candidates are sharp and tough on issues dealing with national security and defending our nation from terrorist attacks. The rightward lean projected a sense of forward movement, and ultimately progress. In addition, the right leaning text and the right leaning flag tightly anchored against Bushs name can conjure up ideas of right wing and conservative ideologies which are extremely symbolic and meaningful to the Republican Party. One way where the Bush/Cheney logo may have been unsuccessful was that during the 2004 campaign, many non-Bush supporting Americans believed that Bush did not have the intelligence to become President. Myriad late night jokes and satires were directed at him and to the non-supporters, the inaccurate depiction of the logos flag with 20 stars and 7 stripes exemplifies his lack of wisdom and intelligence. McCain/Palin Logo Image While the McCain/Palin logo was could be considered aesthetically pleasing to some, it failed to resonate well with many viewers. The logo follows some of the characteristics outlined in this capstone regarding best practices of logo design. Yet, it does not have the same
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widespread appeal that the Obama and Bush logos have. The semiotic analysis highlights its shortcomings that can be attributed to its inability to satisfactorily reach a wider demographic of voters. (1) Level of elaboration. The McCain/Palin logo is simplistic and does not exhibit even a moderate level of elaboration. Although the image shows a naval star which may enhance the simple nature of the design, there remains one singular meaning: the star stands for someone who has heroically served in the United States Navy. Incorporating a star into the McCain/Palin logo may go far enough to allow people to further elaborate that McCain's star stands for excellence and has earned him the right and the qualifications to become the President of the United States. However, because the star bears an exact resemblance to the U.S. Naval award of heroism, this symbol can only successfully depict McCain as a war hero. It is difficult
to deviate from that meaning and most likely will not be interpreted in any other way. In a nation tired of war, it is possible that the war hero depiction of through the use of the star was not easily embraced. (2) The logo displays a level of naturalness. The image of the Naval star exhibits an extremely high-level of naturalness. It is exactly what a Naval star looks like and therefore, McCains logo adorns the most accurate representation of his service in the U.S. Navy. The color selection was also the most natural choice if the designers aim was to highlight McCains military career. Blue and gold are colors that are extremely reminiscent of Naval academy uniforms. 3) The logo offers a high level of meaning with its viewing audience. As discussed above, the McCain/Palin logo exudes much appreciation of the U.S. military culture and for McCains service as an officer. While this can be an admirable trait, it might not have
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been the best image to set forth among the voters. For a logo that reminds voters that the Republican candidate is a glorified war veteran who wholeheartedly supported the troop surge, this visual may not serve as the best choice. The logo is more likely to be effective with people who were already McCain supporters and know him as a person other than as a military man. In addition, the logo remains a true represenation of McCain but seems to be disconnected to Palin whose background is devoid of anything military. This implies that the presidential and vice presidential candidates are not in sync. As previously discussed, logos that share design similarities with a more recognized logo have a higher likelihood of recognition, and can be more positively evaluated. Alternatively, a logo can be negatively evaluated when a viewer falsely recognizes a logo and misinterprets its meaning. Figure 12 shows the comparison between another popular version of the McCain logo and the McCain foods company logo. While some of their syntagmatic elements are different,
the overall color scheme, layout and selection of elements are extremely similar, not to mention, the names are exactly the same. This can lead to viewers becoming confused feeling as if that they have seen the McCain campaign logo elsewhere, or worse, believing his campaign logo was actually related to the food company. With the 2012 presidential election less than two years away, political candidates are now beginning to strategize their campaign approach. President Obama has recently announced his
Figure 12: The McCain Foods logo and the McCain campaign logo
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intent to run for re-election. With the success of the 2008 logo, Obamas official website has been revitalized while retaining the features of the original Obama/Biden O image. The 2012 logo uses a new and bolder typeface that is laid out in a different format (Figure 13). The viewer sees some familiarity in the image and the bolder typeface emphasizes the partnership between the President and Vice President, this time on more equal footing. This new logo is visually strong but it would be interesting to see if it would undergo tweaks or changes when the actual campaign starts. Will the same O image be as successful for 2012s campaign purposes as it was during the 2008 election? This capstone provides a foundation of design best practices that can be utilized in future campaigns. It highlights insights on the varied ways that people can derive meaning from an image and looks into other syntagmatic properties that could be used in an image, all of which will give the logo designers and/or political marketing teams a better idea in developing and creating a political logo that would improve a candidates chance to get elected. The capstones qualitative study has identified several limitations. Identification of those limitations guides the direction and recommendations for future research in designing and adopting effective political campaign logos. Note that the capstone conducts a thorough, systematic semiotic analysis of three political campaign logos. The analysis, however, might
benefit from a more enhanced independent analysis by holding several focus groups or conducting a qualitative survey to obtain a comparative point of view from others personal experiences and individual cultural knowledges of events surrounding the political campaigns
Figure 13: 2012 Obama/Biden Logo (www.barackobama.com)
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of Obama, Bush and McCain. Acknowledging the polysemic nature of images, obtaining actual responses from a variety of participants would have provided other interpretations that may not have been considered in this capstones analysis. Another limiting factor is that the political logos selected for the study reflect a snapshot in time. The capstone may have benefited from conducting an analysis of the designs based on a historical analysis of the political climate and cultural knowledges of presidential elections over time. Often, design trends are influenced by art, pop culture and current events and it would have been more useful if historical patterns of election victories or defeats are presented relative to logos or through the design of other campaign materials. The possible reason behind this lack of historical analysis is that emphasis on logos and branding of a candidate has not warranted much attention until the late 1990s or even mid 2000s when social media and other media campaign approaches have become critical in reaching the voting public. The study was also limited by the selection of only three political logos and its analysis for the capstone. With two logos producing two presidential winners and one logo for a candidate that lost the election, there might have been implicit bias in the analysis of each political candidates logo. The logos of Obama and Bush may have gotten a more favorable analytical review than that of McCains logo. Of course, this cannot be specifically pinpointed since there is a high degree of probability that the loss in the election by McCain may be due to the ineffective logo he used. Time and resource constraints prevented a more in-depth comparison that will ensure non-bias in the study. It would have been ideal to have a focus
group where participants can look at different variations of each of the three candidates logos. Each of the logo designs would be manipulated and presented with different options of syntagmatic features, colors and changes in format in order to gain more insight as to why the
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design choices for each presidential logo are more effective than others and how the logos could be improved. Another approach could involve conducting focus groups where respondents are presented with hypothetical presidential candidate profiles featuring information on a candidates background, political ideologies and stances. The next step would involve presenting the viewers a series of pre-designed logos for each candidate. Moderated discussions will elicit the focus groups perspective on a suitable logo design that fits the hypothetical candidate. Results could indicate what types of logo designs are stronger and more effective in portraying a presidential candidate. CONCLUSION There is no question that a logo is an important tool in any political campaign because it is a vital form of political communication. However, the design of a strategic and effective political campaign logo merits further study. A political campaign logo is a visual piece that entices and lures an audience. It serves not only as an attention getter, but a way for constituents to identify with a candidate who holds the same ideals and for supporters to visually state their endorsement of a candidate. As seen with the Obama logo, a political logo can inspire people to become proactive in an election. This capstones research provides a platform in digesting how effective design principles can be applied to logos, and how a denotative and connotative analysis contributes to our understanding of how a viewer derives meaning from a political logos design. While design trends often change over the course of time, this capstone references a general framework of design best practices and its application in the design of a political logo. This capstone, however acknowledges the fact that even if a logo is considered aesthetically pleasing and follows facets
of best design practices, it may not express the intended message or sentiment. For design or
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campaign team members who are involved in the decision making process of selecting or creating an effective political logo, they should keep in mind to pick not only an attractive logo, but one that best represents the candidate in light of the existing political climate and resonates with the wants and needs of the voters under circumstances that matter most to the public. A logo is a small element of a political marketing campaign, but when properly designed and used, it becomes a crucial element and an asset that could result in a candidates successful election into office. Simply put: when it comes to politics, image is truly everything and for that matter, a logo design may contribute to victory or defeat.
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Heller, S. (2008, 20 November). The O in Obama. New York Times. Retrieved November 15, 2010 from http://campaignstops.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/11/20/the-o-in-obama/ Henderson, P.W. & Cote, J. (1998). Guidelines for selecting or modifying logos. The Journal of Marketing, 62 (2), 14-30. Hockett, J. (2005). Brand W and the marketing of an American President: or, logos as logos. Westminister Papers in Communication and Culture, 2(2), 72-96. Horn, R.E. (1999). Visual Language: Global Communication for the 21st Century. Bainbridge Island: Macrovu, Inc. Janiszewski, C. & Meyvis, T. (2001). Effects of brand logo complexity, repetition, and spacing on processing fluency and judgment. Journal of Consumer Research, 28, 18-32. Joffe, H. (2008). The Power of Visual Material: Persuasion, Emotion and Identification. Diogenes-Sage Publications, 217, 84-93. Johnson-Cartee, K.S., & Copeland, G.A. (1991). Negative political advertising - The coming of age. Hillsdale: Erlbaum. Kendall, K.E. & Paine, S.C. (1995). Political images and voting decisions. In K.L. Hacker (Ed.), Candidate images in presidential elections (pp. 19-36). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. Kohli, C., Suri, R., & Thakor, M. (2002). Creating effective logos: Insights from theory and practice. Business Horizons, May-June, 58-64. Moriarty, S. (2005). Visual semiotics theory. In K. Smith, S. Moriarty, G. Barbatsis & K. Kenney (Eds.), Handbook of Visual Communication: Theory, Methods and Media. (pp. 227-255). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Nabi, R. (2002). Discrete emotions and persuasion. In J.P. Dillard, J.P & M. Pfau (Eds.), The
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persuasion handbook: Developments in theory and practice (pp.289-308). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Organizing for America. (2010). Retrieved February, 2010 from www.barackobama.com Penn, G. (2000). Semiotic analysis of still images. In M.W. Bauer & G. Gaskill (Eds.), Qualitative Researching With Text, Image and Sound. (pp. 227-245). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Petty, R.E., Priester, J.R. & Brinol, P. (2002). Mass media attitude change: Implications of the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects advances in theory research. (pp. 155-198). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Pittard, N., Ewing, M. & Jevons, C. (2007). Aesthetic theory and logo design: examining consumer response to proportion across cultures. International Marketing Review, 24 (4), 457-473. Prudential. (2010). Evolution of the rock. Retrieved December 1, 2010 from http://www.prudential.com/view/page/public/16618?seg=5&name=NewAdvertisingC am paign Rand, P. (1991). Logos, Flags, and Escutcheons. Retrieved October 30, 2010 from www.paul-rand.com Roseman, I.J., & Smith, C.A. (2001). Appraisal theory: Overview, assumptions, varieties, controversies. In K.R. Scherer, A. Schorr, & T. Johnstone (Eds.), Appraisal processes in emotion. (pp. 1-19). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Seidman, S.A. (2010). Barack Obama's 2008 campaign for the U.S. presidency and visual design. Journal of Visual Literacy, 29 (1), 1-27.
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Stone, T.L., Adams, S. & Morioka, N. (2006). Color design workbook. Beverly, MA: Rockport Publisher. UnderConsideration, LLC. Speak up blog: The hardest working presidential campaign logo. Retrieved April 9, 2011 from http://www.underconsideration.com/speakup/archives/004262.html Young, C. (2009). The power of visual images: Constructions of Mexicans in two 1996 presidential advertisements. In S. Barnes (Ed.), Visual impact: The power of visual persuasion (pp. 117-134). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, Inc.
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The Obama Logo Was That Brilliant

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The Obama Logo Was That Brilliant

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The Obama logo was that brilliant, iconic O with the hints of flags, waving fields and a rising

sun Morning in America reduced to a single, eye-catching image.

Ten Life-Saving Rules for Campaign Managers

Is colour important to your business and brand?

Oranges and Yellows

Nee What Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective

complement each of these levels, he proposes three design strategies:

Nee What Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective

Nee What Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective

Nee What Makes a Presidential Campaign Logo Effective

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