34

ANSWER EXPLANATIONS- MEXICO

ANSWER EXPLANATIONS FOR NEWLY.DBVELOPING AND LESS DEVELOPED COUN. TRIES AND GOVERNMENTAND POLITICS IN MEXICO (QUESTTONS, PP.383-391 rN THE COURSEBOOK)

- By comparing economic sectors, the United Kingdom is the best example of a post-industrial society, with only l.4Yo of its population engaged in agriculture, and 80.4%o in services. The tertiary sector grows with industrialization and comes to dominate post-industrial societies, or counffies where most people are no longer employed in industry. Examples of tertiary jobs include construction,trade, finance, real estate, private services, government, and transportation. Even though Russia's PPP was fairly low ($15,900), Russia appears to have moved into post-industrialism as well. Likewise, Mexico has moved away from agriculture (13.7%) toward services (62.9%), as has Iran to a lesser extent.
1. E

2.D - Despite its recent economic boom, 38% of China's population is still employed in agriculture, and Nigeria, along with its sagging PPP ($2,500) has the largest percentage of its people (70%) employed in the primary sector. The primary
sector

agriculture, raising animals, fishing, forestry, and mining

is largest in low-income, pre-industrial nations.

3. C - Democratization begins when popular demands are accompanied by a willingness on the part of the ruling elite to accept power-sharing affangements, as well as a readiness on the part of the people to participate in the process and lend it their active support. This process is called democratic consolidation, which creates a stable political system that is supported by all parts of the society. In a consolidated democracy, all institutions and many people participate, so that democracy penetrates political parties, the judiciary and the bureaucracy. The military, too, cooperates with political leaders and subordinates its will to the democratically-based government. A state that progresses from procedural democracy to substantive democracy through democratic consolidation is said to experience political liberalization, which eventually leads other states to recognize it as a liberal democracy.
4. A- The system of cliques based on personal connections and charismatic leadership has served as the glue that has held an agrarian Mexico together through practicing "you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours." The network of camarillas (patron-client networks) extends from the political elites to vote-mobilizing organizations throughout the country. Comrption is one by-product of patron-clientelism. Democratization and industrialization have put pressure on this system, and it is questionable as to whether or not modem Mexico can continue to rely on patron-clientelism to organize its government and politics.

- Mexico has urbanized rapidly, as people have moved to cities from rural areas. Today about3l4 of the population lives in cities ofthe interior or along the coasts. Mexico City is one ofthe largest cities in the world, with about 2l million inhabitants living in or close to it. The shift from rural to urban population areas during the late 20ft century disrupted traditional Mexican politics, including the patron-client system. The population of Mexico is unevenly distributed across the country, with a vast majority ofthe people living in the mid-section, centered on Mexico City but spreading to several other major cities, such as Guadalajara and Puebla.
5. B

6. E - Porfirio Diaz brought with him the cientificos, a group of young advisors that believed in bringing scientific and economic progress to Mexico. Influences of the "Porfiriato" are stability and an end to the years of chaos; authoritarianism with no sharing of political power beyond the small, closed elite; foreign investment and economic growth encouraged by cientfficos who brought entrepreneurship and foreign investment - primarily from the United States - resulting in a growth of business and industry; and a growing gap between the rich and the poor as many of the elite became quite wealthy and led lavish lifestyles, but most people in Mexico remained poon
7 . C - In both countries, revolutions during the early 20m century resulted in years of chaos. In China, change during the first half of the 20n century was radical, violent, and chaotic. The revolution led to a legendary struggle between nationalists and communists with regional warlords fighting for control of the government. In Mexico, the first decades of the 20th century saw an intensification of violence as the country sank into chaos, and the political system was characterized by serious instability and rapid turnover of political authority. Stabilitlz was regained by resorting to authoritarian tactics that remained in place until the laffer part of the century.

r ANSWER BXPLANATIONS_ MEXICO 35 remarkable sexenio that both stabilized and began a 8. A - When Calles's term as president was up, Lazaro Cardenas radicalized Mexican politics. Cardenas (sometimes called "the Roosevelt of Mexico" by U.S. scholars) gave voice to the peasant demands from the Revolution of 1910, and through his tremendous charisma, brought about many changes, including the redistribution of land. Land was taken away from big landlords and foreigners and redistributed as ejidos - collective land grants - to be worked by the peasants.

1-

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I

tl: I
a'

By the 1950s, Mexico was welcoming foreign investment, and the counffy's GNP began a spectacular growth that continued until the early 1980s. This "Mexican Miracle" - based largely on huge supplies of natural gas and oil - became a model for less developed countries everywhere. With the "oil bust" of the early 1980s, the plummeting price of oil sank the Mexican economy and greatly inflated the value of the peso. Within PR[, the division between the "politicos" - the old style caciques who headed camarillas - and the tecnicos - a new generation of formally educated, business-oriented leaders - began to grow wider, as demands for political liberalization grew in intensity.
9. B

L
i t

If*

Mexico is almost a different country than the area south of Mexico City. The north is very dry and mountainous, but its population is much more prosperous, partly because many are involved in trade with the United States. The north has a substantial middle class with relatively high levels of education. Not surprisingly, they are generally more supportive of a market-based economy. The south is largely subtropical, and its people are generally less influenced by urban areas and the United States. Larger numbers are Amerindian, with less European ethnicity, and their average incomes are lower than those in the north. A typical adult in the south has only six years of schooling, as compared to 8.1 years on average in the north. Although their rural base may influence them to support PRI, some southemers think of the central government as repressive. The southemmost state of Chiapas is the source of the Zapatista Movement, which values the Amerindian heritage and seeks more rights for natives.
10. C

- In many ways, northern

PRI practiced state corporatism, with the state mediating among different groups to ensure that no one group successfully challenged the government. PRI formally divided interest groups into three sectors: labor, peasants, and the middle class ("popular"), with each dominated by PRl-controlled groups. However, The Confederation of Employers of the Mexican Republic (a labor group) was an autonomous group that vocally and publicly criticized the government.
I

l.

12. A- Mexico's Gini coefficient is .48 (2009 estimate), which means that economic inequality is high. In 2002 the poorest l0% of the population earned about I .6% of Mexico's income while the wealthiest 100/o earned 35.6%. This economic divide translates into higher infant mortality rates, lower levels of education, and shorter life expectancies among the poor. This wide gap was a major consequence of rapid economic growth. Relatively little attention was paid to the issues of equality and social justice that historically had led to revolutions in the first place. Social services programs were limited at best. From 1940 to 1980, Mexico's income distribution was among the most unequal of all the LDCs, with the bottom 400/o of the population never earning more than I lo/o of total wages. Today inequality has lessened slightly, but

it is still an important
13. E

issue.

its party system is much more competitive than before, and elections are not as corrupt as they once were. The country has developed some democratic characteristics, but still has many vestiges of its authoritarian past. An often used standard for considering a country a democracy is the longevity of democratic practices. If a nation shows consistent democratic practices for a period of 40 years or so (a somewhat arbitrary number), then it may be declared a stable democracy. Mexico does not fit this description.

- Mexico has experienced both political and economic liberalization,

For most of the 20th century, Mexico was virtually a one-party state. Until 2000 all presidents belonged to PRI, as did most governors, representatives, senators, and other government officials. Over the past twenty years or so other parties have gained power, so that today competitive elections are a reality, at least in many parts of Mexico. The three largest parties in Mexico today are PRI, PAN, and PRD. In Russia, the trend has been the opposite: a multi-party system during the 1990s has transitioned into a clear domination by one party: United Russia. New election rules initiated by Vladimir Putin in 2005 solidified a trend toward fewer political parties. Before 2007,half of the Duma's 450 seats were elected by proportional representation and half by single-member districts. The rules changed so that all seats -starting in the 2007 election - are elected by proportional representation, with all parties required to win a minimum of 7o/o of the national vote in order to win any seats. Smaller parties with regional support lost representation, and only four parties gained seats in the election of 2007 : United Russia, the Communist Pafi the Liberal Democrats, and A Just Russia.
14. B

36

ANSWER EXPLANATIONS_ MEXICO

Citizens of Mexico directly elect their president, Chamber of Deputy representatives, and senators, as well as a host of state and local officials.
15. E

PAN is usually considered to be PRI's opposition party to the right, and as such, it has usually supported neo-libpolicies. PAN was created to represent business interests opposed to centralization and anti-clericism (PRl's praceralist tice of keeping the church out of politics.) PAN is strongest in the north, where the tradition of resisting direction from Mexico City is the strongest. PAN's platform includes, regional autonomy, less government interventiorr in the economy, clean and fair elections, good rapport with the Catholic Clrurch, and support for private and religious education. 17. A- Mexico is a federal republic, though the state and local governments have little independent power and few resources. Historically, the executive branch with its strong presiderrcy has had all the power, while the legislature and judiciary followed the executive's lead, rubber-stamping executive decisions. Since the 1980s, the government and its citizens have made significant changes, so that - more and more - Mexico is practicing democracy and federalism. An important consequence of growing party competition has been that state governors have become more willing to exercise

16. D

theirformalpowers. AccordingtotheConstitutionof l9lT,MexicanpoliticalinstitutionsresemblethoseoftheU.S. The three branches of governmenttheoretically check and balance one another. Even tlrough tlre Soviet Union was highly centralized, it still maintained a federal govemment structure. The Russian Federation has retained this rnodel, and the current regime consists of eighty-nine regions, twenty-one of which are ethnically non-Russian by rnajority. Each region is bound by treaty to the Federation, but not all - including Checlrnya * lrave signed on. Some regions are much stronger than others, so power is devolved unequally across the country, a condition called asyrnmetric federalisrn.
18. B-The British system is parliamentary, and the interactions among the branches are very different from tlrose in a presidential system, such as in the United States. In a parliamentary systenr, the executive branch is fused with the legislative branch because the prime minister and the cabinet are actually the leaders of parliarnent. As a result, separatiorr of powers - a major principle of American government - does not exist. According to the Constitution of I 9l 7, Mexican political institutions resemble those of the U.S. The three branches of government theoretically check and balance one another, and many public officials - including the president, both houses of the legislature, and governors - are directly elected by the people. In practice, however, the Mexican systern is very different frorn that of tlre United States. The Mexican constitution is very long and easily arnended, and the government can best be described as a strong presidential system. 19. C - Under PRI, the para-statal sector- composed of semiautonomous or autonomous government agencies - was huge. These companies often produce goods and services that in other countries are carried out by private individuals, and the Mexican government owned many of tlrem. The best-known para-statal is PEMEX, the giant state-owned petroleum company. After the oil bust of the early 1980s, refonns eliminated many para-statals, and tlre number has continued to dwindle, so that many of them are now privately owned. President Fox pushed for privatization of PEMEX, but did

i
I
I

not succeed.

- Both the Federation Council in Russia and the Mexican Senate represent regions. Unlike the Russian upper house Federation Council, which is filled with appointed representatives -tlre Mexican Senate is also directly elected by -the a combination of the electoral methods: tlrree senators are elected from each of 3 I states and the federal district (Mexico City), with the remaining senators selected by proportional representation. Russia's Federation Council, consists of two members from each of the 89 federaladministrative units. Since 2002 one representative is selected by the governor of each region and another by the regional legislature. The Federation Council seryes the purpose that most upper lrouses do in bicameral federalist systems: to represent regions, not tlre population as such.
20. C 21. C -The growing strength of opposition pafties, cornbined with legislation that provided for greater representation of minority parties (proportional representation) in Congress, Ied to the implernentation in 2002 of an election law tlrat required political parties to sponsor women candidates. Parties must run at least 30o% women for both lists for the proportional representation election, as well as candidates for the single-m'ernber districts/states. In an effoft to regain some of its lost clout, PRI has exceeded the requirernents by instituting a 50o/o quota for its candidates. So far, no rnqjor party has fielded a female candidate for the presidency, although a minor party - Social-Democrats and Fanners - ran Patricia

Mercado in 2006.

ANSWER EXPLANATIONS- MEXICO 37 22. A- The Mexican Constitution of l9l7 provides for.iudicial review. The Suprerne Coutl is the highest federal court, and even though on paper it has judicial review in reality it almost never overrules an irnportant govemment action or policy. Historically, tlren, the coufts lrave been controlled by the executive branch, most specifically the president. In China, the 1982 Constitutiorr, theoretically at least, commits the party to tlre authority of law, but it does not grant the courts the power ofjudicial review. From the comrnunist point of view, law is part of politics tlrat the bourgeoisie uses to suppress the proletariat. Early Communist leaders, then, never acknowledged rule of law as a legitirnate principle. As a result, no independent-iudiciary lras ever existed in the People's Republic of China, but remains under the tiglrt control

of the CCP.
lras reacted to drug-trafficking problems by tunring to the anny, sending thousands of troops to patrol tlre streets in the most troubled cities. It was supposed to be an emergency measure, but the troops have remained, and some lrave criticized thern for brutality against ordirrary citizens. In May 2008 the violence reached a fevered pitch after Mexico's police chief was gunned down as he arrived lrome late at night. Other top officials lrave also been assassinated,

23.F,- Calder6n

including tlre police second-in-command in the border town of Juiirezand a top policernan from Mexico City. This targeting of senior law-enforcement officials is unprecedented in Mexican history. Relatively 24.D-Agrowinggapbetweentlrericlrandthepoorwasarnajorconsequenceofrapideconomicgrowth. little attention was paid to the issues of equality and socialjustice that historically had led to revolutions in tlre first place. Social services programs were limited at best. Frorn 1940 to 1980, Mexico's income distribution was among the most unequal ofall theLDCs"withthebottom 40ohofthepopulationneverearningmoretlran l1%ooftotal wages. Today inequality has lessened slightly, but it is stillan important issue. In its effort to industrialize,the Mexican government borrowed heavily against expectatiotts that oil prices would remain high forever. Muclr of the rapid growtlr was based on oil, especially since Mexico's production began increasing .iust as that of OPEC countries was decreasirrg during tlre early 1970s. Wlren the price of oil plumrneted in 1982, so did

25.8-

Mexico'seconomy. Byl987,Mexico'sdebtwasover$l0Tbillion,rnakingitorreofthemostlreavilyindebtedcountries irr tlre world. The debt represented 70%o of Mexico's entire GNP.
26. C - In 2010 tlre rnurder rate in Mexico was I 7 per I 00,000 people, up more tlran two-thirds from 2007 . The fighting is concentrated in a few areas, rnost notably in Ciudad Jubrez, a center of ntaquila factories just across the border from El Paso, Texas. There the murder rate lras clirnbed to one of the highest in tlre world as two caftels battle for control of the border crossing. In contrast, tlre murder rate in Yucatiin state - a tourist destination famous for its Mayan ruins is no lrigher than in Belgiunr.

.B - A manufacturing zone was created in the I960s in northern Mexico just south of the border with tlre United States. Workers in this maquiladora district have produced goods primarily for consumers in the U.S., and a number of U.S. companies lrave establislred plants in tlre zone to transform imported, duty-free components or raw materials into finished industrial products. Industrialization of the zorle was promoted by the Nofth American Free Trade Agreernent (NAFTA), a treaty signed in 1995 by Mexico, tlre United States, and Canada, tlrat eliminated barriers to free trade among the three countries. Today hundreds of tlrousands of workers are employed in the maquiladora district, accounting for over 20o/o of Mexico's entire industrial labor force.
21

28. A - The North American Free Trade Agreement was signed by Mexico, Canada, and the United States. Its goal is to more closely integrate the economies by elirninating tariffs and reducing restrictions so tlrat companies can expand into all countries freely. Mexico hopes to stimulate its overall growtlr, enriclr its big business community, and supply jobs for Mexicans in new industries. U.S. firrns gain frorn access to inexpensive labor, raw materials, and tourism, as well as new markets to sell and invest in. Mexico runs the risk of again being overslradowed by the Urrited States, but hopes that benefits will outweiglr problems.

29.D - The presiderrts of Mexico elected in 2000 and 2006 - Vicente Fox and Felipe Calder6n for PAN. All other presidents back to 1929 have been PRI candidates.
30. E

were botlr candidates

According to the Constitution of 1917, Mexican political institutions resemble tlrose of the U.S. The three branches of government theoretically check and balance one another, and many public officials - including the president,

38

ANSWER EXPLANATIONS_ MEXICO

both houses of the legislature, and governors - are directly elected by the people. In practice, howeveq the Mexican system is very different from that of the United States. The Mexican constitution is very long and easily amended, and
the govemment can best be described as a strong presidential system.

RUBRIC FOR COUNTRY-CONTEXT FREE-RESPONSB QUESTION:

The institution of the Mexican presidency has changed considerably since the early 1990s. (a) Describe a power that the Mexican president had before the early 1990s and still has today. (b) Define political liberalization. Describe a limitation on the Mexican presidency that has come about since the early 1990s as a result of political liberalization. (c) Describe a policy initiative taken by a Mexican president since the early 1990s and assess the impact of the limitation you identified in (b) on the success of the initiative.
5 Points

Part (a):

I point

1 point is earned for an accurate description of a power that the Mexican president had before the early 1990s and still has today.

Some possible powers:

. . . . . . .

commander of the armed services

proposing/implementingeconomicpolicy appointing court justices appointing cabinet members supervision of PEME)Vother para-statals veto of legislation chief diplomat

Part (b): 2 points

I point is eamed for a correct definition of political liberalization as the process of limiting the power of the state over private property and market forces. I point is eamed for an accurate description of a limitation on the Mexican presidency that has come about since the early 1990s as a result of political liberalization.
Some possible limitations:

. . . . .

Opposition parties in the legislature may block his initiatives. He no longer can appoint his successor.
He cannot manipulate election results as easily. Governors do not necessarily follow his orders. The media openly criticizes his actions.

Part (c): 2 points

I point is earned for an accurate description of a policy initiative takeh by a Mexican president since the early 1990s. I point for an accurate assessment of the impact of the limitation identified in (b) on the success of the initiative.

ANSWER EXPLANATIONS

MEXICO

a a a

Presidents have pushed membership in internation al organizations such as GATT and NAFTA; president is still strong enough to push through trade agreements . Calder6n's use of military to combat drug trafficking; media criticism has led to more caution in tactics. Fox/Calder6n's attempts to privatize PEMEX; met with resistance from legislators/opposition parties/governors. Fox attempted to reconcile with EZLN; pressure from governorsflegislators caused him to give concessions. PRl-sponsored presidents maniptilated elections; IFE has safeguarded honest and accurate election results'