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ASIDE: More precisely, a physical system is represented by an inner-product space. And even more
precisely, the most general type of physical system is represented by a special type of inner-product space, called a Hilbert space. A Hilbert space is roughly an inner-product space in which every converging sequence of vectors (every Cauchy sequence) converges to a limit vector belonging to the space. This Cauchy completeness technical property only becomes important when we need to talk about properties (operators) that have a continuum of values.
(B) Properties are represented by Hermitian operators. Note: A property (i.e., hardness, position) of a system has a value (i.e., hard/soft, 5 feet from origin/10 feet from origin) in a given state of the system. So we need a way of specifying how properties and their values relate to states:
Eigenvector/Eigenvalue Rule: A state possesses the value of a property represented by operator O if and only if that state is an eigenvector of O with eigenvalue .
VERY IMPORTANT RULE!!! It is a translation rule that translates physical notions (property, state, value of property) into mathematical objects (operator, eigenvector, eigenvalue). We will see later that some ways of interpreting the mathematical formalism give up this particular translation rule.
Application of Principles (A) and (B) Physical system: electron We want the states of our electron to be unit length vectors. And if we want to measure the Hardness property, we need states in which the electron is hard (hardness state) and in which it is soft (softness state). We only need 2 since there are only 2 values of the Hardness property. These states should be orthogonal since they should be eigenvectors of a Hermitian operator with different eigenvalues. One way to implement this is the following:
hardness state
|hard =
1 0 0 1
softness state
|soft =
Hardness operator
H=
1 0
0 1
Stipulate: 1 is the Hardness value corresponding to soft. +1 is the Hardness value corresponding to hard.
SO:
Translation: When an electron is in the state |hard, it has the Hardness value of hard (i.e., it is hard). When an electron is in the state |soft, it has a Hardness value of soft (i.e., it is soft).
NOW: The real significance of using vectors to represent states: Lets define Color states and a Color operator.
|black =
|white =
C=
0 1
1 0
Stipulate: 1 is the Color value corresponding to white. +1 is the Color value corresponding to black.
The following relations also hold: |black = |hard + |soft |white = |hard |soft |hard = |black + |white |soft = |black |white
= Check: 1 0 + 0 1 = 0 + 0
= |black
SO: A white electron (an electron in the state represented by |white) is represented as a linear sum (superposition) of hard and soft states. Moreover: Is a white electron definitely hard or definitely soft? (Does it have a Hardness value?) Recall that experiments indicate the answer should be no. Recall Eigenvector/Eigenvalue Rule: To say a white electron has a Hardness value (hard or soft), it must be in an eigenstate of the Hardness operator. BUT: The state represented by |white is not an eigenstate of the operator H representing the Hardness property: 1 0 0 1
H|white =
SO:
A white electron cannot be said to have a Hardness. A hard/soft electron has no definite Color value. Hardness and Color are mutually incompatible properties.
So the vector space mathematical formalism and the translation rules given in Principles (A) and (B) allow us to represent experimental results involving electrons! Note, finally, an interesting consequence of Principle (B) due to the characteristics of Hermitian operators:
(C) Dynamics: States evolve in time via the Schrdinger equation. |(t1) |(t2)
Schrdinger evolution
(more precisely)
OR
state at time t1
Important property: S is a linear operator S(|A + |B) = S|A + S|B where , are numbers
(D) Born Rule: Connection with Experiment (how probabilities enter QM). Recall Eigenvector/Eigenvalue Rule: A state possesses the value of a property represented by O just when that state is an eigenvector of O with eigenvalue . What about states that arent eigenvectors of O? Suppose a physical system is in a state represented by |. To measure the value of a property represented by an operator B: (1) First expand | in a basis given by a set of eigenvectors of B: | = a1|b1 + a2|b2 + ... + aN|bN
eigenvectors of B: B|b1 = b1|b1
(2)
The probability that | possesses the value bi of the property represented by B is defined to be: Pr(value of B is bi in state |) ||bi|2 = |ai|2 This is called the Born Rule
A bit complicated. Again: | is a vector of length 1. It can be expanded in any basis. Weve picked the particular basis given by a set of eigenvectors of B. The absolute value squared of a given expansion coefficient of | in this basis represents the probability that the state will have a given value (given by an eigenvalue of B) of the property represented by B.
Two notes: (a) Since | has length 1, The sum of the square of all its expansion coefficients in any basis must equal 1. This is a mathematical characteristic of probabilities. (b) When | is itself an eigenvector |bi of B, then the probability that it possesses the value bi is equal to 1 (as it should be, according to the Eigenvector/Eigenvalue Rule): If: | = |bi then: ||bi|2 = |bi|bi|2 = 1 (E) Projection Postulate (Collapse) Suppose a physical system is in a state represented by |, and we want to measure the value of a property represented by B. First, expand | in eigenvectors of B: | = a1|b1 + a2|b2 + ... + aN|bN After measurement, suppose we get the value bi. Then the Projection Postulate says that the state collapses to the state represented by |bi: | |bi collapse Motivation: Measurements are repeatible. If we measure the value bi once, then we should get the same value bi on a second measurement (provided the system is not interferred with in between).
Check: Suppose system is in state represented by |, not an eigenvector of B. Born Rule says: The probability of getting bi upon measurement of property represented by B is ||bi|2 = |ai|2 < 1. Suppose we get bi upon initial measurement. Projection Postulate then says: | collapses to |bi. Born Rule then says: The probability of getting bi upon a second measurement is ||bi|2 = |bi|bi|2 = 1. So if we measure the property represented by B again, we should get bi with certainty, which is as it should be.
Recap: 5 Principles of Quantum Mechanics (A) States are represented by vectors of length 1. (B) Properties are represented by Hermitian operators.
Eigenvector/Eigenvalue Rule: A state possesses the value of a property represented by operator O if and only if that state is an eigenvector of O with eigenvalue .
(D) Born Rule. Pr(value of B is bi in state |) ||bi|2 (E) Projection Postulate. | |bi collapse
when a measurement of B is made on | with result bi where |bi is an eigenvector of B with eigenvalue bi
Suppose | represents the state of an electron located at some position. Can expand | in eigenvectors of position operator X: | = a1|1 + a1.00001|1.00001 + ... + a72.93|72.93 + ... where ax = |x, x runs from to +
expansion coefficients ASIDE: The sum here should really be an integral, since x takes on a continuum of values.
Again: All of these infinite number of position eigenvectors are orthogonal to each other. They form a basis for coordinate space. Notation: ax = |x (x) (x) is called the wave function in the position basis. It is a continuous function of x.
ASIDE: The wave function is really just a way of encoding the expansion coefficients of a state vector | in a given coordinate basis. We can also expand | in other coordinate space bases; a momentum basis, for instance (we would then get a momentum wave function (p)). In general, we can form a wave function for any state vector expanded in a basis of eigenvectors of an operator with a continuous range (or spectrum) of eigenvalues.