Photolithography:

The Basics of Projection Printing

Photolithography
Photolithography is at the Center of the Wafer
Fabrication Process
*
Thin Films
Implant
Diffusion
Etch
Test/Sort
Polish
Photo
Patterned
wafer
Photolithography Types
Projection System
Chris A. Mack, Fundamental Principles of
Optical Lithography, (c) 2007
4

Light Source
Condenser Lens
Mask
Objective Lens
Wafer
Block diagram of a generic projection imaging system
Projection System
Chris A. Mack, Fundamental Principles of
Optical Lithography, (c) 2007
5

Light Source
Condenser Lens
Mask
Objective Lens
Wafer
Illumination System
Illumination system delivers light to the mask
Sufficient intensity
Proper directionality
Proper spectral characteristics
Adequate uniformity across the field
Projection System
Chris A. Mack, Fundamental Principles of
Optical Lithography, (c) 2007
6

Light Source
Condenser Lens
Mask
Objective Lens
Wafer
Illumination System
Mask
changes the transmittance of the light
Causes diffraction
Diffraction
Projection System
Chris A. Mack, Fundamental Principles of
Optical Lithography, (c) 2007
7

Light Source
Condenser Lens
Mask
Objective Lens
Wafer
Illumination System
Objective lens
Picks up a portion of the diffraction pattern
Projects the image onto the photoresist
Image Formation
Diffraction Analysis
Chris A. Mack, Fundamental Principles of
Optical Lithography, (c) 2007
8

Light Source
Condenser Lens
Mask
Objective Lens
Wafer
Illumination System
Mask
changes the transmittance of the light
Causes diffraction
Diffraction
Diffraction
Theory of propagation of light
Solution to Maxwells Equations: complicated
Diffraction Integrals for far field: simpler
Light propagation in homogenous medium

Fresnel
Diffraction
Region
(z w)
Kirchhoff
Diffraction Region
(z > /2)
Fraunhofer
Diffraction
Region
(z tw
2
/)
Fraunhofer Diffraction Integrals
Fraunhofer Diffraction Integral
Mask Transmittance Function:
How does the mask transmit light?
Requires the solution of Maxwells equations for
that material: complicated!
Kirchhoff boundary condition
Feature size > 2 && chrome thickness < /2
Ignore diffraction caused by mask topography
) , ( y x t
m
chrome 0
region nt transpare 1 ) , (
=
= y x t
m
Fraunhofer Diffraction Integral
mask at the incident field Electric : ) , (
function mittance mask trans : ) , (
medium the of index refractive :
plane n diffractio mask to from distance :
light of h wavelengt :
plane n diffractio : plane ' '
plane mask : plane
y x E
y x t
n
z
y x
y x
Given
m

dxdy e y x t y x E f f T
y f x f i
m y x m
y x
) ( 2
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
+

} }
=
t
z
ny
f
z
nx
f
f f
f f T
where
y x
y x
y x m
'
,
'
pattern n diffractio of s frequencie Spatial : ,
pattern n diffractio the of field Electric : ) , (
= =
Fourier Optics
The diffraction pattern is
just the fourier transform
of the mask pattern
transmittance!
)) , ( ) , ( ( ) , ( y x t y x E F f f T
m y x m
=
Diffraction Examples
Chris A. Mack, Fundamental Principles of
Optical Lithography, (c) 2007
12


f
x

0
0
mask
0
1
T
m
(f
x
)
t
m
(x)
Two typical mask patterns, an isolated space and an array of equal lines and spaces, and
the resulting Fraunhofer diffraction patterns assuming normally incident plane wave
illumination. Both t
m
and T
m
represent electric fields.
x
x
x m
f
wf
f T
t
t ) sin(
) ( =

=
=
j
x
x
x
x m
p
j
f
f
wf
p
f T ) (
) sin( 1
) ( o
t
t
Chris A. Mack, Fundamental
Principles of Optical
Lithography, (c) 2007
13

0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
w f
x

I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

Magnitude of the diffraction pattern squared (intensity) for a single space (thick solid
line), two spaces (thin solid line), and three spaces (dashed lines) of width w. For the
multiple-feature cases, the linewidth is also equal to w.
Image Formation: Imaging Lens
Chris A. Mack, Fundamental Principles of
Optical Lithography, (c) 2007
14

Light Source
Condenser Lens
Mask
Objective Lens
Wafer
Illumination System
Objective lens
Picks up a portion of the diffraction pattern
Projects the image onto the photoresist
Image Formation
Imaging Lens
The diffraction pattern extends throughout
the x-y plane
The objective lens (finite size) can only capture
a part of this pattern
Higher spatial frequencies lost
16

Aperture
(x, y)-plane
Object
Plane
u
max

Objective
Lens
Entrance
Pupil
max
sinu n NA=

NA
p
n
z
ny
f
n
z
nx
f
y
y
x
x
=
= =
= =
min
1
sin
'
sin '
NA/ : The maximum spatial frequency that can enter the lens
Large NA => larger portion of diffraction pattern is captured => better image
NA
K R

1
=
Formation of the Image
Lens Pupil Function
Mathematical description of the amount of the
light entering the lens
Lens performs the inverse fourier transform of
the transmitted diffracted pattern

NA
f f
NA
f f f f P
y x
y x y x
< + =
< + =
2 2
2 2
, 0
, 1 ) , (
{ } { }
{ } ) , ( ) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , (
1
y x y x M
f f P f f T F y x E
y x g y x g F F

=
=
18

0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
-w -w/2 0 w/2 w
Horizontal Position
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

N = 1
N = 3
N = 9
Aerial images for a pattern of equal lines and spaces of width w as a function of the
number of diffraction orders captured by the objective lens (coherent illumination). N is
the maximum diffraction order number captured by the lens.
PSF: Point Spread Function
Means of characterizing the resolving
capability of an imaging system
Normalized image of an infinitely small
contact hole
{ }
NA NA
R
J
PSF
rNA
J
f f P F y x E
f f T y x t
ideal
y x
y x m m

t
t

t
t
o
7 . 0 to 66 . 0
) 2 (
) 2 (
) , ( ) , (
1 ) , ( ) 0 , 0 ( ) , (
2
1
1
1
=
=
=
= =
= => =

0.0
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Normalized Radius = rNA/
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

Oblique Illumination
Plane wave strikes at an angle
Phase differs for different points on mask
Shift in the position of the diffraction pattern
NA
k
R
f f P f f f f T F f f y x E
f
e y x E
y x y y x x m y x
x
x i

u

u t
2
)} , ( ) ' , ' ( { ) ' , ' , , (
' sin
'
) , (
1
1
' sin 2
=
=
=
=

Diffraction Pattern
Lens Aperture
Mask Pattern
(equal lines and spaces)